Deep Sea Minerals - Vol 3 - Cobalt-rich Ferromanganese Crusts

Rising global demand for metals and developments in technology have recently renewed industry interest in exploring, and exploiting, deposits of deep sea minerals (‘DSM’).

DEEP SEA MINERALS

1C

Cobalt-rich Ferromanganese Crusts A physical, biological, environmental, and technical review

COBALT-RICH FERROMANGANESE CRUSTS 1

Edited by Elaine Baker and Yannick Beaudoin

A Centre Collaborating with UNEP

Reviewers Peter Crowhurst Nautilus Minerals Inc John Feenan IHC Mining Hiroshi Kitazato Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC) Gavin Mudd Monash University Christian Neumann UNEP/GRID Arendal Andrew Thaler Duke University Cornel de Ronde Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences Phil Symonds Geoscience Australia David Cronan Royal School of Mines, Imperial College, London Steve Scott University of Toronto

Steering Committee Akuila Tawake (Chair) Secretariat of the Pacific Community/SOPACDivision Charles Roche Mineral Policy Institute Elaine Baker UNEP/GRID-Arendal at the University of Sydney Yannick Beaudoin UNEP/GRID-Arendal Malcolm R. Clark National Institute of Water & Atmospheric Research Ltd (NIWA) Daniel Dumas Commonwealth Secretariat Chuck Fisher Penn State University James R. Hein United States Geological Survey (USGS) Robert Heydon Offshore Council Harry Kore Government of Papua New Guinea Hannah Lily Secretariat of the Pacific Community/SOPAC Division

Cartography Kristina Thygesen GRID Arendal Riccardo Pravettoni GRID Arendal

Michael Lodge International Seabed Authority Linwood Pendleton Duke University, NOAA Sven Petersen IFM-GEOMAR

Julian Roberts Commonwealth Secretariat Samantha Smith Nautilus Minerals Inc. Anne Solgaard UNEP/GRID-Arendal Jan Steffen IUCN Arthur Webb Secretariat of the Pacific Community/SOPAC Division

Front Cover Alex Mathers

Technical Editors Claire Eamer Patrick Daley

Editors Elaine Baker and Yannick Beaudoin

Production GRID-Arendal

Authors Malcolm R. Clark National Institute of Water & Atmospheric Research Ltd (NIWA) Robert Heydon Offshore Council James R. Hein United States Geological Survey (USGS) Sven Petersen IFM-GEOMAR Ashley Rowden National Institute of Water & Atmospheric Research Ltd (NIWA) Samantha Smith Nautilus Minerals Inc. Elaine Baker UNEP/GRID Arendal at the University of Sydney Yannick Beaudoin UNEP/GRID Arendal

Acknowledgments Special thanks to Akuila Tawake and Hannah Lily from the Secretariat of the Pacific Community/SOPAC Division and Peter Harris from Geoscience Australia for final reviews of chapters. Citation Secretariat of the Pacific Community (2103) Deep Sea Minerals: Cobalt- rich Ferromanganese Crusts, a physical, biological, environmental, and technical review . Vol. 1C, SPC

COBALT-RICH FERROMANGANESE CRUSTS 2

DEEP SEA MINERALS

1C

Cobalt-rich Ferromanganese Crusts A physical, biological, environmental, and technical review

CONTENTS 1.0 The Geology of Cobalt–rich Ferromanganese Crusts 1.1 The formation and occurrence of cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts 1.2 Metal concentrations and tonnages 2.0 Biology Associated with Cobalt-rich Ferromanganese Crusts 2.1 Habitats and biodiversity associated with cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts 2.2 Composition of communities 3.0 Environmental Management Considerations 3.1 Environmental management objectives 3.2 General environmental management approaches and principles 3.3 Environmental studies 3.4 Defining characteristics of biodiversity of cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts 3.5 Environmental impacts 3.6 The potential extent of impacts 3.7 Mitigation and management measures 4.0 Processes related to the technical development of marine mining 4.1 Exploration 4.2 Mining

7 8 11 15 16 19 23 25 26 29 31 32 35 36 41 43 45

COBALT-RICH FERROMANGANESE CRUSTS 3

COBALT-RICH FERROMANGANESE CRUSTS 4

Introduction

On the slopes of submarine mountains around the world, minerals precipitate out of the seawa- ter to form thin crusts on rocky surfaces. The crusts are commonly called ferromanganese crusts, reflecting the fact that their major constituents are iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn), although a host of other minerals occur in them in smaller amounts, including cobalt - which is why they are also often called ‘cobalt-rich crusts’ or ‘cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts’. Many of these miner- als have potential economic value. The ferromanganese crusts of the Pacific have been of interest for some time. During the 20-year period from 1980 to 2000, more than 40 research cruises investigated aspects of the formation and character of ferromanganese crusts (Cronan 1984; Hodkinson and Cronan 1991; Hein et al .; 2000). Ferromanganese crusts are partially made up of valuable cobalt, nickel, and manganese. Addition- ally, crusts are seen as a potential source of the rare earth elements and other in-demand metals that are increasingly used in high technology and green technology industries. However, mining the crusts has been considered more technically challenging than mining other deep sea deposits, such as manganese nodules or sea-floor massive sulphides, and this has slowed development. The crusts can be firmly attached to the underlying rock, and technological solutions are required to design a process to retrieve them while minimizing the collection of non-mineralised waste rock (ISA 2002). The Chinese government has been active in exploration and development through the China Ocean Mineral Resources Association (COMRA). It submitted an application to the International Seabed Authority (ISA) to exploit cobalt-rich ferromanganese crust deposits in a 3 000 square kilometre area of the Western Pacific (ISA 2012). COMRA, the largest producer of land-based rare earth minerals, began surveying marine cobalt-rich crust resources in 1997. The Government of Japan, through the Japan Oil, Gas, and Metals National Corporation (JOGNEC), also submitted an application to the ISA to exploit cobalt-rich ferromanganese crust deposits in an equivalently sized area just north of the area of Chinese interest. These applications were considered and approved by the ISA at the ninteenth annual session in July 2013. Ferromanganese crusts are most enriched with cobalt and other metals in shallow-water sites (800 to 2 500 metres water depth). In the Pacific, therefore, commercial prospects are likely to be concen- trated within the sovereign waters of Pacific states. To support Pacific Islands in governing and devel- oping these natural resources, SOPAC division of SPC is providing a range of information products,

COBALT-RICH FERROMANGANESE CRUSTS 5

technical and policy support, and capacity-building activities through the Deep Sea Minerals in the Pacific Islands Region: a Legal and Fiscal Framework for Sustainable Resource Management project (Figure 1). This publication created as part of that project, brings together expert knowledge about the geology and biology of cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts and information about best practices relat- ed to the environmental management and technical aspects of mineral exploration and extraction.

Participating Paci c Island States

Marshall Islands

Federated States of Micronesia

Palau

Kiribati (Line Iss.)

Kiribati

Nauru

(Gilbert Iss.)

Kiribati

Papua New Guinea

(Phoenix Iss.)

Tuvalu

Solomon Islands

Cook Islands

Timor Leste

Samoa

Fiji

Vanuatu

Tonga Niue

Exclusive economic zone

Figure 1. The Pacific ACP States (i.e. Africa-Caribbean-Pacific Group of States) participating in the European Union funded SPC Deep Sea Minerals Project.

References

Hodkinson, R.A, and Cronan, D.S. (1991). Regional and depth variabili- ty in the composition of cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts from the SOPAC area and adjacent parts of the central equatorial Pacific. Mar. Geol. 98, 437–447. ISA (2012) International Seabed Authority receives two new applications for seabed exploration. http://www.isa.org.jm/en/node/786 ISA (2002). Polymetallic massive sulphides and cobalt-rich ferromanga- nese crusts: status and prospects. Technical Study No. 2.

Cronan, D.S. (1984). Criteria for recognition of areas of potentially eco- nomic manganese nodules and encrustations in the CCOP/SOPAC region of the central and southwestern tropical Pacific. South Pac. Geol. Notes 3, 1–17. Hein, J.R., Koschinsky, A., Bau, M., Manheim, F.T., Kang, J.-K. and Roberts, L. (2000). Cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts in the Pacific. In: (Ed: Cronan, D.S.) Handbook of marine minerals. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, 239–279.

COBALT-RICH FERROMANGANESE CRUSTS 6

1.0

The Geology of Cobalt–rich Ferromanganese Crusts James R. Hein 1 and Sven Petersen 2

1 U.S. Geological Survey, 400 Natural Bridges Dr., Santa Cruz, CA, 95060, USA 2 Helmholz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel (GEOMAR), 24148 Kiel, Germany

COBALT-RICH FERROMANGANESE CRUSTS 7

1.1

The formation and occurrence of cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts

Cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts, precipitate onto nearly all rock surfaces in the deep ocean. Their thickness varies from less than 1 millimetre to about 260 millimetres. They occur only where the rock surfaces are free of sediment. There, they form pavements of intergrown manganese and iron oxides. Ferromanganese crusts may also coat rock pebbles and cob- bles. They form at water depths of 600 to 7 000 metres on the flanks of seamounts (undersea mountains with a height above 1 000 metres), knolls (heights of 200 to 1 000 metres), ridges, and plateaus. Crusts with sufficient mineral contnet to be of economic interest commonly occur at depths of about 800 to

2 500 metres (Hein et al . 2000, 2009). In the Pacific Ocean, there are more than 11 000 seamounts (57 per cent of the glob- al total) and 41 000 knolls (Yesson et al . 2011, estimated from the latest global bathymetry), and many more might exist in uncharted waters (Wessel et al . 2010). Many seamounts are within the Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) of Pacific Island countries (Figure 2). The Atlantic Ocean has fewer seamounts, and the cobalt-rich crusts that occur there are usually associ- ated with hydrothermal activity at sea-floor-spreading centres (see box over page), with the exceptions of the northeast and northwest continental margin areas.

Location of Seamounts

160°E

170°E

180°E

170°W

160°W

150°W

140°W

130°W

120°W

110°W

10°N

10°S

20°S

30°S

Seamounts with summits between 800 and 2500 metres depth Seamounts with summits above 800 and bellow 2500 metres depth

Land areas

Seabed from 2500 to 4000 metres depth

Seabed from 0 to 800 metres depth

Seabed from 4000 to 6000 metres depth

Outer boundary of States economic exclusive zones (EEZ)

Seabed from 800 to 2500 metres depth

Seabed from 6000 metres and deeper

Figure 2. Bathymetric map of the Pacific showing the location of seamounts.

COBALT-RICH FERROMANGANESE CRUSTS 8

In the Pacific, the manganese and iron oxides precipitate out of cold ambient seawater (hydrogenetic) and are not associated with volcanic or hydrothermal activity (except at active volca- nic arcs and hot-spot volcanoes). A wide array of metals and elements dissolved in ocean water are absorbed in large quan- tities onto the manganese and iron oxides (Figure 3). The main source of nearly all metals dissolved in seawater is erosion of the continents. The exception is manganese, which derives primarily from hydrothermal sources and mixes throughout the global ocean. The metals are adsorbed because of the crusts’ very slow growth rates (1 to 5 millimetres per million years) and the enormous specific surface area (average 325 square metres per cubic centimetre of crust) (Hein et al . 2000). The metals absorbed include: • trace metals, such as cobalt, nickel, and copper; • rare metals, such as tellurium, platinum, zirconium, niobi- um, tungsten, and bismuth; and • rare-earth elements, such as lanthanum, cerium, neodymi- um, europium, and terbium. This makes ferromanganese crusts a potential resource for many of the metals used in emerging high-technology and green-tech- nology applications.

Formation of Fe-Mn crusts

2-

Pb(CO 3

) 2

Tl +

Co 2 +

Cu 2 +

+

Hf(OH) 5 -

-

0

Th(OH) 4

-

-

+

+

MnO 2

FeOOH

-

-

Ba 2 +

Ni 2 +

+

+

-

2-

H 5

TeO 6

MoO 4

-

+

Zn 2 +

2-

UO 2

(CO 3

) 2

S t r o n g c u r r e n t fl o w s

Hydrogenetic

Fe-Mn crust

Seamount

Source: Modified from Hein et al 2013

Figure 3. Formation of cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts. Adapted from Hein 2004.

a

b

c

A: The seabed at 2 000 metres water depth showing ferroman- ganese crust pavement (~4 m by 3 m) on Horizon Guyot, Cen- tral Pacific. B: 18-cm-thick crust (D11-1) from 1 780 metres water depth within the Marshall Islands EEZ that started growing onto a substrate rock about 70 million years ago. C: A 12-cm-thick crust (CD29-2; cruise F7-86-HW) from the Johnston Island EEZ (USGS, Hein).

COBALT-RICH FERROMANGANESE CRUSTS 9

Hydrogenetic Crusts, Mixed Hydrothermal-hydrogenetic Crusts, and Stratabound Hydrothermal Deposits

The crusts of economic interest are formed at the sea-floor by precipitation from cold seawater (hydrogenetic), but iron and manganese oxides can also be created below the sea- floor through hydrothermal processes. The hydrothermal de- posits usually consist of stratabound layers of manganese, or iron, or manganese-cemented volcaniclastic and biogenic sediments. They are distinctly different in texture and compo- sition from hydrogenetic ferromanganese crusts. The hydro- genetic crusts have similar amounts of iron and manganese, whereas the hydrothermal deposits are predominantly either iron or manganese (Hein et al . 2000). Hydrothermal activity dilutes the metals of economic interest, although small de- posits can occasionally be enriched in lithium, molybdenum, chromium, zinc, nickel, or copper (Hein et al . 1997). At pres- ent, the economic potential of these hydrothermal deposits is uncertain, but might be reassessed with more investigation.

Farther away from the hydrothermal source, stratabound hy- drothermal deposits grade into mixed hydrothermal-hydroge- netic crusts. These mixed-source crusts form at the seabed when the hydrothermal fluids exit the sea-floor, mix with sea- water, and precipitate onto hard rock surfaces. Those close to the hydrothermal source are very rich in iron and manganese but, like the stratabound deposits, have low concentrations of rare metals. As the distance from the source increases, the hydrothermal contribution wanes and the cold ambient seawater contribution dominates. Consequently, there is an increasing concentration of rare metals the farther away from the hydrothermal source the crusts are formed. The mixed hydrothermal-hydrogenetic crusts have no economic impor- tance. Only the purely hydrogenetic (seawater source) crusts contain sufficient rare metals to be of current economic inter- est (Hein et al . 2000).

Ferromanganese crust on a boulder collected from the Ninety East Ridge, Indian Ocean. Photo courtesy of Evelyn Mervine.

Complex internal structure of ferromanganese crust.

COBALT-RICH FERROMANGANESE CRUSTS 10

1.2

Metal concentrations and tonnage

Ferromanganese crusts have a simple mineralogy. They are com- posed predominantly of vernadite (manganese oxide, or MnO 2 ) and non-crystalline iron oxyhydroxide (FeOOH). This contrasts with manganese nodules, another type of deep sea mineral (see Volune 1B) containing similar metals, but having a more com- plex mineralogy – they are composed of two or three manganese minerals (vernadite, todorokite, and birnessite) in addition to non-crystalline FeOOH. Ferromanganese crusts also contain mi- nor amounts of detrital minerals, such as quartz and feldspar. Most thick crusts (greater than about 60millimetres) also contain a phosphate mineral called carbonate fluorapatite, which is a secondary mineral that forms long after the manganese and iron oxides have precipitated from seawater. Iron and manganese oc- cur in approximately equal amounts in crusts (Figure 4). Cobalt,

the trace metal of greatest economic interest, can be up to 2 per cent, but usually averages 0.5 to 0.8 per cent by weight (Figure 5). Ferromanganese crusts contain the highest concentrations of the rare metal tellurium, which is used in the solar cell industry to produce thin-film photovoltaics – the best material for converting sunlight into electricity. The concentration of metals other than iron and manganese in ferromanganese crusts is affected by the concentration of metals in seawater (the source), the Fe/Mn ratio of colloids in seawater and in crusts, and the surface charge of the Fe-Mn col- loids. Cobalt and many other rare metals are adsorbed onto ver- nadite, which is more abundant in crusts than nodules, and this explains their generally higher concentrations in crusts (Hein

Concentration of iron and manganese in deep sea crusts Percentage of total weight

17.8

22.9

North Pacific crusts

18.1

17.0

21.7

22.3

14.5

South Pacific crusts

Indian Ocean crusts

20.9

Atlantic crusts

Iron Manganese

Source: modified from Hein and Koschinski, 2012

Figure 4 Concentration of iron and manganese in ferromanganese crusts.

COBALT-RICH FERROMANGANESE CRUSTS 11

Concentration of cobalt, nickel, and other metals of potential economic importance in ferromanganese crusts

Cobalt

Nickel

Rare Earth Elements

Copper

Molybdenum

Yttrium

Tellurium

North Paci c crusts

Atlantic crusts

South Paci c crusts

Indian Ocean crusts

Grams per tonne

6 200

4 000

1 000

100

1 tonne

Note: the area of the squares is proportional to the grams per tonne value for each mineral. For comparison purposes, the area of the entire page represents proportionally one tonne.

Source:modi ed fromHeinandKoschinski,2012

Figure 5 Concentration of metals of potential economic importance in ferromanganese crusts.

COBALT-RICH FERROMANGANESE CRUSTS 12

Ferromanganese crust on basalt substrate, collected during Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute (MBARI) cruise to the Taney Seamounts – a chain of four undersea volcanoes that lie about 300 kilometres due west of Monterey Bay, California – from August 5–13, 2010 (see http://www.mbari.org/expeditions/Taney10)

and Koschinsky 2013). The rare metals tellurium and platinum are also more highly concentrated in crusts than nodules be- cause they are sorbed onto the iron oxyhydroxide phase, which is more abundant in crusts. Little is know about the abundance of ferromanganese crusts in most areas of the global ocean. The thickest crusts with the high- est concentrations of cobalt have been found on outer-rim ter- races and on broad saddles on the summits of seamounts (Hein et al 2008). The central equatorial Pacific region – particularly the EEZs around Johnston Island and Hawaii (United States), the Marshall Islands, the northern part of the Federated States of Mi-

cronesia, and international waters of the mid-Pacific – is current- ly considered the most promising area for crust mining. A rough estimate of the quantity of crusts in the central Pacific region is about 7 533 million dry tonnes (Hein and Koschinsky 2013). Ferromanganese crusts on seamounts in the central Pacific are estimated to contain about four times more cobalt, three and a half times more yttrium, and nine times more tellurium than the entire land-based reserve base of these metals. These crusts also contain the equivalent of half of the bismuth and a third of the manganese that makes up the entire known land reserve base (Hein and Koschinsky 2013).

COBALT-RICH FERROMANGANESE CRUSTS 13

References

the International Seabed Authority’s Workshop held in Kingston, Ja- maica, 31 July-4 August 2006, 59-90. Hein, J.R., Conrad, T.A., and Dunham, R.E. (2009). Seamount characteristics and mine-site model applied to exploration- and mining-lease-block se- lection for cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts. Marine Georesources and Geotechnology, v. 27, p. 160-176, DOI: 10.1080/10641190902852485. Hein, J.R., Conrad, T.A., and Staudigel, H. (2010). Seamount mineral depos- its, a source of rare-metals for high technology industries. Oceanogra- phy, 23(1), 184-189. Hein, J.R. (2012), Prospects for rare earth elements from marine minerals. International Seabed Authority, Briefing Paper 02/12, May 2012, 4 pp. Hein, J.R. and Koschinsky, A. (2013). Deep-ocean ferromanganese crusts and nodules. InTheTreatiseonGeochemistry, 12,S.Scott(ed.), Elsevier (inpress). Hein, J.R., Conrad, T.A., Frank, M., and Sager, W.W. (2012). Copper-nick- el-rich, amalgamated ferromanganese crust-nodule deposits from Shatsky Rise, NW Pacific. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, 13 (1), October 2012, doi:10.1029/2012GC004286. Hein, J.R., Mizell, K., Koschinsky, A., and Conrad T.A. (2013). Marine ferromanga- nesedepositsasa source ofraremetalsfor high- and green-technologyappli- cations:Comparisonwithland-baseddeposits.OreGeologyReviews51,1-14.. Jeong, K.S., Jung, H.S., Kang, J.K., Morgan, C.L., and Hein, J.R. (2000). Formation of ferromanganese crusts on northwest intertropical Pacif- ic seamounts: electron photomicrography and microprobe chemistry. Marine Geology, 162, 541-559. Kim, J., Hyeong, K., Yoo, C. M., Moon, J.-W., Kim K.-H., Ko, Y.-T., and Lee, I. (2005). Textural and geochemical characteristics of Fe-Mn crusts from four seamounts near the Marshall Islands, western Pacific. Geosciences Journal 9, 331-338. Koschinsky, A. and Halbach P. (1995), Sequential leaching of marine fer- romanganese precipitates: Genetic implications, Geochimica et Cosmo- chimica Acta, 59, 5113-5132. Koschinsky, A., Stascheit, A., Bau, M. and Halbach, P. (1997). Effects of phos- phatization on the geochemical and mineralogical composition of marine ferromanganese crusts. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 61, 4079-4094. Koschinsky, A. and Hein, J.R. (2003). Uptake of elements from seawater by ferromanganese crusts: solid phase association and seawater specia- tion. Marine Geology, 198, 331-351. Koschinsky, A., Hein, J.R., and Audroing, J. (2005). The enrichment of plat- inum and the fractionation of Pt from Pd in marine ferromanganese crusts. In: Törmänen, T.O. and Alapieti, T.T., eds., Extended Abstracts and proceedings, 10th International PlatinumSymposium, 7-11 August 2005, Oulu, Finland, Geological Survey of Finland, 429-432. Manheim, F. T. and C. M. Lane-Bostwick(1988), Cobalt in ferromanganese crusts as amonitor of hydrothermal discharge on the sea floor, Nature, 335, 59-62. Muiños, S.B., Hein, J.R., Frank, M., Monteiro, J.H., Gaspar, L., Conrad, T., Garcia Pereira, H., and Abrantes, F., (2013). Deep-sea Fe-Mn crusts from the northeast Atlantic: Composition and resource considerations. Ma- rine Georesources and Geotechnology 31 (1), 40-70. Puteanus, D. and Halbach, P. (1988). Correlation of Co concentration and growth rate—A method for age determination of ferromanganese crusts. Chemical Geology 69, 73-85. Ren, X., Glasby, G. P., Liu, J., Shi, X., and Yin, J. (2007). Fine scale composi- tional variations in a Co-rich Mn crust from the Marcus-Wake Seamount cluster in the Western Pacific based on electron microprobe analysis (EMPA). Marine Geophysical Researches 28, 165-182. Usui, A. and Someya, M. (1997). Distribution and composition of marine hydrogenetic and hydrothermal manganese deposits in the northwest Pacific. In Nicholson, K., Hein, J. R., Bühn, B., and Dasgupta S. (eds.) Manganese mineralization: Geochemistry and mineralogy of terrestrial and marine deposits. pp. 177-198. London: Geological Society of London Special Publication No. 119. Wen, X., De Carlo, E. H., and Li, Y. H. (1997). Interelement relationships in ferromanganese crusts from the central Pacific ocean: Their implications for crust genesis. Marine Geology 136, 277-297.

Banakar, V.K., Hein, J.R., Rajani, R.P., and Chodankar, A.R. (2007). Platinum group elements and gold in ferromanganese crusts of the Afanasiy-Niki- tin Seamount, equatorial Indian Ocean: Sources and fractionation. Jour- nal of Earth System Science, v. 116 (1), 3-13. Banakar, V.K., and Hein, J.R. (2000). Growth response of a deep-water fer- romanganese crust to evolution of the Neogene Indian Ocean. Marine Geology, v. 162, 529-540. De Carlo, E. H., Pennywell, P. A., and Fraley, C. M. (1987). Geochemistry of ferromanganese deposits from the Kiribati and Tuvalu region of the west central Pacific Ocean. Marine Mining 6, 301-321. Ding, X., Gao, L. F., Fang, N. Q., Qu, W. J., Liu, J., and Li, J. S. (2009). The re- lationship between the growth process of the ferromanganese crusts in the Pacific seamount and Cenozoic ocean evolvement. Science in China Series D: Earth Sciences 52, 1091-1103. Glasby, G. P., Ren, X., Shi, X., and Pulyaeva, I. A. (2007). Co-rich Mn crusts from the Magellan Seamount cluster: the long journey through time. Geo-Marine Letters 27, 315-323. Halbach, P., Kriete, C., Prause, B., and Puteanus, D. (1989a). Mechanisms to explain the platinum concentration in ferromanganese seamount crusts. Chemical Geology 76, 95-106. Halbach, P., Sattler, C., Teichmann, F., andWahsner, M. (1989b). Cobalt-rich and platinum-bearing manganese crust deposits on seamounts: nature, formation, and metal potential. Marine Mining 8, 23-39. Halbach, P., Prause, B., and Koch, K. (1990). Platinum and palladium rich ferromanganese crust deposits. Marine Mining 9, 117-126. Hein, J.R. and Morgan, C.L. (1999). Influence of Substrate rocks on Fe-Mn Crust Composition. Deep-Sea Research I, 46, 855-875. Hein, J.R., Koschinsky, A., Halbach, P., Manheim, F.T., Bau, M., Kang, J.-K., and Lubick, N. (1997). Iron and manganese oxide mineralization in the Pacific. In Nicholson, K., Hein, J.R., Bühn, B., and Dasgupta, S. (eds.) Manganese Min- eralization: Geochemistry and Mineralogy of Terrestrial and Marine Deposits. GeologicalSociety of LondonSpecial PublicationNo. 119, London, 123-138. Hein, J.R., Wong, F.L., and Mosier, D.L. (1999). Bathymetry of the Republic of the Marshall Islands and vicinity. U.S. Geological Survey Miscellaneous Field Studies Map MF-2324, version 1.0, 1 sheet, scale 1: 2,000,000 (web page http://pubs.usgs.gov/mf/1999/2324/). Hein, J.R., Koschinsky, A., Bau, M., Manheim, F.T., Kang, J-K., and Roberts, L. (2000). Cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts in the Pacific. In Cronan, D.S. (ed.), Handbook of Marine Mineral Deposits. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, 239-279. Hein, J.R., Koschinsky, A., and Halliday, A.N. (2003). Global occurrence of tellu- rium-rich ferromanganese oxyhydroxide crusts and a model for the enrich- ment of tellurium. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 67 (6), 1117-1127. Hein, J.R. (2004). Cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts: Global distribution, composition, origin and research activities. In: Minerals other than polymetallic nodules of the International Seabed Area; Proceedings of a workshop held on 26-30 June 2000, International Seabed Authority, Kingston, Jamaica, volume 1, 188-256. Hein, J.R., Koschinsky, A., and McIntyre, B. (2005). The global enrich- ment of platinum group elements in marine ferromanganese crusts. In: Törmänen, T.O. and Alapieti, T.T., eds., Extended Abstracts and proceed- ings, 10th International Platinum Symposium, 7-11 August 2005, Oulu, Finland, Geological Survey of Finland, 98-101. Hein, J.R., McIntyre, B.R., and Piper, D.Z. (2005). Marine mineral resources of Pacific Islands—A review of the Exclusive Economic Zones of islands of U.S. affiliation, excluding the State of Hawaii. U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1286, 62 pp (http://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/2005/1286/). Hein, J.R. (2006). Characteristics of seamounts and cobalt-rich ferroman- ganese crusts. Proceedings of a Workshop held on 26-30 March 2006, International Seabed Authority, Kingston, Jamaica, 30 pp. Hein, J.R. (2008). Geologic characteristics and geographic distribution of potential cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts deposits in the Area. In Mining cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts and polymetallic sulphides deposits: Technological and economic considerations. Proceedings of

COBALT-RICH FERROMANGANESE CRUSTS 14

2.0

Biology Associated with Cobalt-rich Ferromanganese Crusts Malcolm R. Clark National Institute of Water & Atmospheric Research, NIWA, Wellington 6021, New Zealand

COBALT-RICH FERROMANGANESE CRUSTS 15

2.1

Habitats and biodiversity associated with cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts

3.1.1 Geographic context In the Southwest Pacific region, crusts form on the summits and flanks of seamounts, especially large flat-topped guyot features (isolated volcanic mountains), at depths of about 400 metres down to 4 000 metres. There are several thousand seamounts

Cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts (Fe-Mn crusts) are found throughout the global oceans on the summits and flanks of seamounts, ridges, and plateaux. They form only on bare rock surfaces, and are therefore distributed where oceanic currents keep the seamounts free of sediment. The process is very slow, taking millions of years for development of thick crusts.

Biogeography: mapping the distribution of species

Biogeography examines the geographic distribution of fauna and flora, generally at the larger scale of similar faunal communities.

Much of the open ocean has never been sampled, especially the deep sea. Even in the case of seamounts, which have been the focus of international efforts, only a few hundred have been stud- ied, out of hundreds of thousands worldwide. However, we know that the distribution of animals varies considerably between areas.

A biogeographic classification puts together information on biological composition, species distributions, and physical

GOODS Bioregions bathyal

1

2

3

4

14

12

7

11

13

5

6

8

10

9

1. Arctic 2. Northern North Atlantic 3. Northern North Pacific

4. North Atlantic 5. SE Pacific Ridges 6. New Zealand Kermandec

7. Cocos Plate 8. Nazca Plate 9. Antarctic

10. Subantarctic 11. Indian 12. West Pacific

13. South Atlantic 14. North Pacific

Figure 6 Lower bathyal provinces. Depth range 800 to 3000 metres (UNESCO, 2009).

COBALT-RICH FERROMANGANESE CRUSTS 16

at suitable depths within the region, although the thickest and most enriched crusts occur between 800 metres and 2 500 me- tres (see section 2.1). The physical characteristics of seamounts vary throughout the region, and, consequently, the distribution of ferroman- ganese crust differs among Pacific Island States. The differing physical conditions affect the distribution of biological com- munities, particularly benthic (sea-floor) invertebrate species that are strongly driven by depth, substrate type, and current flow (Clark et al . 2010). Research carried out by Japan in as- sociation with SOPAC in the 1990s showed varying sediment conditions in cobalt-rich regions. Off Kiribati and Tuvalu, high proportions of the sea-floor were covered by clay or foramin-

iferal ooze, while there was much greater coverage by hard crust in areas off Western Samoa, the Marshall Islands, and Federated States of Micronesia (Fukushima 2007). General benthic communities in the region are thought to be broad- ly similar: a biogeographic classification for bathyal zones (depths of 800 to 3 500 metres) grouped the entire South- west Pacific into four large biogeographic provinces (UNE- SCO 2009). This implies that the pool of species available throughout the region is similar over large areas. However, an environmental classification done specifically for seamounts showed that considerable variation might be expected with- in the larger provinces, based on depth, organic carbon flux to the sea-floor, oxygen level, and proximity to neighbouring seamounts (Clark et al . 2011a).

and environmental conditions to derive geographical group- ings with similar attributes. Within these regions, the biodi- versity is believed to be generally similar. This can help man- agers and policy makers plan for use and conservation of the marine environment.

In 2007, a multidisciplinary scientific expert group developed a new biogeographic classification of the open-ocean and deep sea areas of the world. This has become known as the GOODS report (UNESCO 2009). It classifies specific ocean regions on the basis of a range of oceanographic factors (such as tem-

GOODS Bioregions abyssal

1

13

15

2

12

14

11

8

9

3 4

10

5

7

6

1. Arctic 2. North Atlantic 3. Brazilian Basin

4. Angola and Sierra Leone Basins 5. Argentine Basin 6. East Antarctic Indian

7. West Antarctic 8. Indian 9. East Pacific Basins

10. South Pacific 11. Central Pacific 12. North Central Pacific

13. North Pacific 14. West Pacific Basins 15. Mediterranean Basins

Figure 7 Abyssal provinces. Depth range 3500 to 6500 metres (UNESCO, 2009).

COBALT-RICH FERROMANGANESE CRUSTS 17

perature, salinity, oxygen, particulate organic carbon flux) and topographical features (such as bathymetry, plate boundaries, sea-floor sediment, seamounts, hydrothermal vents). These characteristics were used to select relatively homogeneous re- gions in terms of habitat and associated biological communi- ties. The process was dominated by physical factors, but these were modified through knowledge of patterns of community composition and processes of dispersal, isolation, and evolu- tion. The classification is considered a living document, and boundaries are subject to further refinement.

Pelagic waters were divided into 30 global provinces. Benthic areas were subdivided into 14 bathyal (800 to 3 500 metres depth; Figure 6), 14 abyssal (3 500 to 6 500 metres depth; Fig- ure 7), and 10 hadal (more than 6 500 metres depth) provinces. In the general Pacific Islands region, there are 8 lower bathyal provinces, and 4 abyssal provinces. Within such a broad region- al classification, more detailed schemes can be developed, such as seascape definition (Harris and Whiteway 2009), which is based on topography, or for a specific feature like seamounts (Clark et al . 2011).

COBALT-RICH FERROMANGANESE CRUSTS 18

Composition of communities 2.2 The physical environmental conditions described above mean that ferromanganese crust habitat is characterized by rocky substrate, reasonably swift current flows, and a wide depth range (Figure 8). The rocky substrate makes the habitat suitable for sessile animals, such as corals and sponges, that require hard surfaces on which to attach, but generally unsuitable for burrowing animals, which require soft muddy sediments (al- though soft sediment will occur in small patches). Swift currents that occur around seamounts or steeply sloping topography can limit the type or shape of animal that can live in such a dynam- ic environment and not be swept away. However, filter feeders that require good current flow to bring food particles to them without excessive sediment can find such conditions advanta- geous. The flanks of seamounts span a wide depth and tem- perature range, meaning that a large variety of animals can find suitable conditions to live. nese crust areas than on manganese nodules, but less than at vent sites for polymetallic sulphides, although variance of mean estimates is very high (Figure 9). Fukushima (2007) also noted that high densities of suspension feeders, especially feather stars and sea pens, were distributed along the edges of crusts. This is consistent with relatively strong current flows pro- viding such feeders with a good supply of particulate material, although sea pens are normally found on soft sediment rather than rocky substrates. Seamounts can have highly variable substrate composition (Wright 2001) and accordingly host a wide variety of fauna (Clark et al . 2010). Typically, however, the large biogenic-forming corals and sponges dominate the megafauna (Rowden et al . 2010). An initial comparison of seamounts off Hawaii revealed no signifi- cant difference between the faunal composition of ferromanga- nese-crust and non-ferromanganese-crust features, with similar numbers and composition of the main groups – sponges, corals, anemones, crabs, sea stars, sea urchins, brittle stars, sea cu- cumbers, feather stars (Clark et al . 2011b). Depth was the main driver of faunal composition. There were, however, differences

There has been considerable biological research undertaken on seamount communities in various parts of the Pacific Ocean, but most studies investigating fauna on ferromanganese crusts have been done in the central Pacific Ocean and around Hawaii (Grigg et al . 1987, Mullineaux 1987, Clark et al . 2011b). There has been extensive research on seamounts off New Zealand, Australia, and New Caledonia, but this has not been focused on ferromanganese crust habitat. However, the Japan-SOPAC surveys carried out between 1985 and 2005 included biolog- ical investigations of megabenthic fauna (large invertebrate animals, greater than 1–2 centimetres) in areas of manganese nodules, polymetallic sulphides, and ferromanganese crusts (for example, Fukushima 2007). The sampling stations included a number of seamounts and locations that were classified as ferromanganese crust. These sites were located within the EEZs of Kiribati, Tuvalu, Samoa, the Marshall Islands, and Federated States of Micronesia. The number of sea-floor photographs tak- en ranged from 590 (covering 0.35 hectare) in Samoa to more than 3 400 off the Marshall Islands (covering 2 hectares). These surveys recorded a variety of high taxonomic groups, including foraminiferans, sponges, corals, squids, echino- derms (sea stars, sea cucumbers, feather stars), crabs, and sea squirts. These cover the range of invertebrate megafaunal groups (at least to Class level) normally found in deep sea envi- ronments. Large foraminiferans (single-celled animals that form large mats) are conspicuous and diverse on crust areas (Mul- lineaux 1987), especially the large xenophyophores (Fukushima 2007). Faunal abundance was markedly higher in ferromanga-

Cobalt rich crust

Tuna

Plankton

S t r o n g c u r r e n t o w s

Squid

Corals and sponges

Alfonsino

Rattail shes

Crab

Seastar

800m

Rocky substrate with little sediment

Flat -top guyot

2 000m

Figure 8. A generalised schematic of biological characteristics associated with ferromanganese crust on a seamount in the Pa- cific (with reference to Fukushima 2007 and Clark et al. 2011b).

COBALT-RICH FERROMANGANESE CRUSTS 19

variable recruitment due to intermittent dispersal between seamount populations (Shank 2010), mean that recovery of vulnerable species (and the assemblages they form) from hu- man impacts, such as fishing or mining, is predicted to be very slow (Probert et al . 2007). Studies on seamounts off New Zea- land and Australia have shown few signs of recolonization or recovery after 10 years of closure to bottom-trawling operations (Williams et al . 2010), and signs of dredging on the Corner Rise seamounts were still clearly visible after a period of up to 30 years (Waller et al . 2007). The pelagic environment associated with seamounts is well known for hosting large aggregations of surface fish, sharks, seabirds, and marine mammals (see chapters in Pitcher et al . 2007). Seamounts have been identified as hotspots for large pelagic fish biodiversity (Morato et al . 2010a). In the western South Pacific, they are important sites of commercial longline fisheries for skipjack (Katsuwonis pelamis), bigeye (Thunnus obesus), yellowfin (Thunnus albacares), and albacore (Thun- nus alalunga) tuna (Morato et al . 2010b). Alfonsino (Beryx splendens), pink maomao (Caprodon longimanus), and sever- al species of deepwater snapper (Etalis spp., Pristipomoides spp.) are also abundant bentho-pelagic species in areas of the southwestern Pacific and can form dense aggregations over the summits of seamounts (Lehodey et al . 1994; Sasaki 1986; Clark et al . 2007; McCoy 2010). The biomass of these higher predators appears to be supported by a combination of factors, including localized oceanographic currents that can cause up- welling, eddies, and even closed-circulation cells around sea- mounts, a continuous flow of plankton to the seamount from a wider oceanic area, and diurnal trapping of zooplankton by the physical barrier of the seamount summit (Clark et al . 2010). Many seamounts in the PIC region extend to within 800 to 1 000 metres of the surface, which is within the depth range of the deep scattering layer (DSL). This is a mix of zooplankton (such as shrimps, euphausiids, and copepods) and mesope- lagic fish (such as lantern fish and small squid) that migrate vertically upwards at night and down during the day. Where the DSL makes contact with the seamount summit and up- per flanks, there is a zone of interaction between pelagic and benthic ecosystems. Much of the animal production driven by phytoplankton in the near-surface waters sinks over time in the form of dead animals and detritus (the flux of particulate organic carbon, or POC). POC raining onto the sea-floor plays an important role in supporting biodiversity. Even at abyssal depths, a strong correlation has been observed between levels of surface production and densities of small infaunal worms (Mincks & Smith 2006).

Relative abundance of megafanual taxa Number of animals per hectare

900

Polymetallic sulphides

600

Cobalt-rich crust

300

Manganese nodules

0

Source: Fukushima, 2007

Figure 9 Relative abundance of megafaunal taxa (number of an- imals per hectare) from the different substrate types sampled during Japan-SOPAC surveys. Adapted from Fukushima 2007.

in distribution (and likely abundance) between seamounts, with a number of species being recorded much more frequently on ferromanganese crust. Whether crustal composition has a ma- jor effect on the biological communities is unresolved, as sea- mount comparisons have often been confounded by differences in depth, and substrate type is often not considered. A follow-up study to Clark et al . (2011b) included substrate type in the anal- ysis and found indications that the level of sea-floor coverage by ferromanganese crust may, in fact, influence community com- position (author’s unpublished data). Cross Seamount, south of Hawaii, has relatively thick crust on its flanks, which have been described as “sparse and barren” (Grigg et al . 1987). However, isolation from other seamounts or shallow waters can restrict successful recruitment, so the scarcity of biota might not be related to the chemical composition of the crust. Foraminifera have been shown to settle at higher densities on crust than on basalt substrate (Verlaan 1992). More research is required to improve our understanding of the relationship between faunal community structure and crust composition. A number of abundant taxa found on deep sea seamounts are slow-growing and long-lived. Cold-water corals, in particular, live for hundreds to thousands of years (Roarck et al . 2006; Rogers et al . 2007). These slow growth rates, together with

COBALT-RICH FERROMANGANESE CRUSTS 20

a

b

c

d

e

f

g

h

A selection of fauna photographed on cobalt-rich crust seafloor on seamounts off Hawaii. All photos courtesy of Chris Kelley, HURL.(a) an homolid crab, Paramola japonica, at a depth of 400 m; (b) the precious coral Corallium laaunse, recorded at East Laysan Seamount, 1600 m; (c) a giant sea anemone, Boloceroides daphneae; (d) a comatulid feather star, or crinoid; (e) a seastar of the genus Henricia, which is common on seamounts over 1000 m; (f) a Farreid sponge, Farrea occa, photographed from the Pisces V submersible on Pio- neer Bank at a depth of 1700 m; (g) the black coral Myriopathes ulex; (h) a spectacular Chrysogorgid coral Iridogorgia bella.

COBALT-RICH FERROMANGANESE CRUSTS 21

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