Dead planet, living planet

DEADPLANET , LIVING PLANET BIODIVERSITY AND ECOSYSTEM RESTORATION FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

A RAPID RESPONSE ASSESSMENT

Disclaimer The contents of this report do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of UNEP or contributory organisations. The designations employed and the presentations do not imply the expressions of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNEP or contributory organisations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city, company or area or its authority, or concern- ing the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Nellemann, C., E. Corcoran (eds). 2010. Dead Planet, Living Planet – Biodiversity and Ecosystem Restoration for Sustain- able Development. A Rapid Response Assessment. United Nations Environment Programme, GRID-Arendal. www. grida.no ISBN: 978-82-7701-083-0 Printed by Birkeland Trykkeri AS, Norway

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DEADPLANET , LIVING PLANET BIODIVERSITY AND ECOSYSTEM RESTORATION FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

A RAPID RESPONSE ASSESSMENT

Christian Nellemann (Editor in chief) Emily Corcoran

4

PREFACE

Restoration is not only possible but can prove highly profitable in terms of public savings; returns and the broad objectives of overcoming poverty and achieving sustainability

Ecosystems, from forests and freshwater to coral reefs and soils, deliver essential services to humankind estimated to be worth over USD 72 trillion a year – comparable to World Gross National Income. Yet in 2010, nearly two-thirds of the globe’s ecosystems are con- sidered degraded as a result of damage, mismanagement and a failure to invest and re- invest in their productivity, health and sustainability.

ics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB) which is bringing visibility to the wealth of the world’s natural capital. It docu- ments over 30 successful case studies referencing thousands of restoration projects ranging from deserts and rainforests to rivers and coasts. The report confirms that restoration is not only possible but can prove highly profitable in terms of public savings; returns and the broad objectives of overcoming pov- erty and achieving sustainability. It also provides important rec- ommendations on how to avoid pitfalls and how to minimize risks to ensure successful restoration. Dead planet, living planet: Biodiversity and ecosystem restoration for sustainable development is part of UNEP’s evolving work on the challenges but also the inordinate opportunities from a transition to a low carbon, resource efficient Green Economy. The ability of six billion people, rising to over nine billion by 2050, to thrive let alone survive over the coming decades will in part depend on investments in renewable energies to effi- cient mobility choices such as high speed rail and bus rapid transport systems. But as this report makes clear, it will equally depend on maintaining; enhancing and investing in restoring ecological infrastructure and expanding rather than squander- ing the planet’s natural capital.

The loss of ecosystems and the biodiversity underpinning them is a challenge to us all. But a particular challenge for the world’s poor and thus for the attainment of the UN’s Millennium De- velopment Goals. Wetlands provide services of near USD 7 trillion every year. Forest- ed wetlands treat more wastewater per unit of energy and have up to 22 fold higher cost-benefit ratios than traditional sand filtration in treatment plants. Many of the world’s key crops such as coffee, tea and mangoes are dependent on the pollination and pest con- trol services of birds and insects. By some estimates projected loss of ecosystem services could lead to up to 25 % loss in the world’s food production by 2050 increasing the risks of hunger. The loss of mangroves, wetlands and forests increases vulnerability and is a contributory factor as to why as many as 270 million people an- nually are being affected by natural disasters. Ecosystems, such as sea-grasses; tidal marshes and tropical forests, are also important in removing greenhouse gases from the atmosphere: their steady decline may accelerate climate change and aggravate further coun- tries and communities’ vulnerability to its impacts. It is high time that governments systematically factored not only ecosystem management but also restoration into national and regional development plans.

Achim Steiner UN Under-Secretary General and UNEP Executive Director

This report is a contribution to the UN’s International Year of Biodiversity and is a complement to the UNEP-hosted Econom-

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SUMMARY

Biodiversity and ecosystems deliver crucial services to humankind – from food security to keeping our waters clean, buffering against extreme weather, providing medicines to recreation and adding to the foundation of human culture. Together these services have been estimated to be worth over 21 – 72 trillion USD every year – comparable to the World Gross National Income of 58 trillion USD in 2008.

it is apparent that major improvements and efforts are needed to restore and manage ecosystems also outside protected areas at a much greater scale than today. Indeed, restoration costs range from hundreds to thousands, or even hundreds of thou- sands of USD for every hectare restored, or over 10 fold that of effectively managed protected areas. These numbers, however, are dwarfed compared to the long-term estimated costs of loos- ing these ecosystem services. Well planned, appropriate restoration, compared to loss of eco- system services, may provide benefit/cost ratios of 3–75 in re- turn of investments and an internal rate of return of 7–79%, depending on the ecosystem restored and its economic con- text, thus providing in many cases some of the most profitable public investments including generation of jobs directly and indirectly related to an improved environment and health. Eco- logical restoration can further act as an engine of economy and a source of green employment. A world wide survey of studies looking at restoration and con- servation of ecosystem services shows us that conservation and restoration provides a highly profitable, low-cost investment for maintaining ecosystem services. Increases in biodiversity and ecosystem service measures after restoration are positively related. Restoration actions focused on enhancing biodiversity should support increased provision of ecosystem services, par- ticularly in tropical terrestrial biomes. Conversely, these results suggest that ecosystem restoration focused mainly on improving services should also have a primary aim at restoring biodiversity.

Human society is however living well beyond the carrying capac- ity of the planet and currently over 60% of ecosystem services and their biodiversity are degrading, compromising sustainability, well being, health and security. Environmental degradation is aug- menting the impact of natural disasters such as floods, droughts and flash floods affecting 270 million people annually and killing some 124,000 people worldwide every year, 85% in Asia, and is, in some cases, even a primary cause of disasters. Degrading and polluted ecosystems are also a chief component in over 900 mil- lion lacking access to safe water. Poor management of activities on land and sea is further exacerbated by changing climatic condi- tions. In some scenarios loss of ecosystem services are depicted to result in up to 25% loss in the world’s food production by 2050 along with hunger and spread of poverty in many regions. Restoring degraded ecosystems is a key challenge. Ecological restoration is a critical component in the application of an eco- system approach to management. It is the process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged, or destroyed. It involves attempting to re-establish the ecosys- tem itself as well as targeting restoration of its services, such as clean water, to humankind. Effective conservation is the cheapest and most optimal option for securing services, costing only from tens to a few hundred USD per hectare. However, protected areas cover only 13%, 6% and <1% of the planets land, coastal, and ocean area, respective- ly, and many are not under effective management. Of the re- maining 80–90% of the planet, almost one-third of the world’s ecosystems are already directly converted for human activities such as for agriculture and cities, and another one-third have been degraded to some extent. With such levels of degradation,

Challenges of waste water management in rural areas, which produce over half of the organic contamination of waste wa-

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estimated halving of deforestation rates by 2030, cutting emis- sions by 1.5–2.7 Gt CO 2 per year at a cost of USD 17.2 billion to USD 33 billion/year, but with a long term benefits estimated at USD 3.7 trillion in present value terms. At a global scale, CO 2 emission from peatland drainage in Southeast Asia is con- tributing the equivalent of 1.3% to 3.1% of current global CO 2 emissions from the combustion of fossil fuel. Conservation, restoration and reforestation of peatlands drained and logged for palmoil, timber or cropland are, along with restoration of mangroves and seagrass communities, important climate mit- igation measures. A set of guidelines are recommended to avoid pitfalls of restora- tion projects. These pitfalls include among others 1) Unrealistic goals or changes in restoration targets in the process; 2) Im- proper and partial restoration which creates monocultures with little ecosystem service capacity compared to reference sites; 3) Un-intended transplant of non-native invasive pests or species; 4) Lack of monitoring to ensure that restoration results in ris- ing biodiversity and services in restored ecosystems; 5) Lack of reduction in the pressures that lead to the loss of ecosystems in the first place; 5) Lack of adequate integration of stakeholders and socio-economic issues. However, as long as these pitfalls are given adequate atten- tion, evidence from a diversity of ecosystem restoration proj- ects across the world reveal positive results, typically restoring 25–44% of the original services and biodiversity provided in comparable ecosystems. Restoration can therefore together with conservation clearly improve damaged or previously lost ecosystem services with major positive effects on primary de- velopment goals in nations worldwide. Surveys of user and public attitudes also reveal high payment willingness and public support to restoration projects. Restora- tion should therefore be considered an important component and in some cases partial solution to major societal challenges of development including poverty alleviation, labor productiv- ity, generation of jobs and prosperity, health and disaster miti- gation and prevention.

ter, can best be met by restoring ecosystem catchments, ri- parian zones and wetlands, the latter providing services of an estimated 6.62 trillion USD annually. Challenges of disaster mitigation and prevention from floods and storms are most ef- fectively met by reducing deforestation of catchments, restor- ing wetlands, mangroves and coral reefs. Coastal wetlands in the US which currently provide storm protection services have been valued at 23 billion USD annually. In India, mangroves serving as storm barriers have been noted to reduce individual household damages from 153 USD/household to an average of 33 USD/household in areas with intact mangroves. Challenges of land degradation, erosion, overgrazing and loss of soil fertility, pollination and natural pest control can be met through more sustainable land use practices and restoration. Exotic species infestations can in many case be addressed by restoration, including re-establishing more organic based farming systems. Organic farming systems have been esti- mated to provide at least 25% higher ecosystems services than conventional. Improving the health and subsequent labor productivity of peo- ple suffering from water related diseases, currently filling near- ly half of the Worlds hospital beds, can in part be met through restoration of catchments and improved waste water manage- ment. Restoration of wetlands to help filter certain types of wastewater can be a highly viable solution to wastewater man- agement challenges. Forested wetlands treat more wastewater per unit of energy and have a 6–22 fold higher benefit-cost ratio than traditional sand filtration in treatment plants. Indeed, in New York, payments to maintain water purification services in the Catskills watershed (USD 1–1.5 billion) were assessed at sig- nificantly less than the estimated cost of a filtration plant (USD 6–8 billion plus USD 300–500 million/year operating costs). Climate change mitigation and carbon sequestration can par- tially be met through conservation and restoration of carbon sinks such as forests, more sustainable agriculture and ma- rine ecosystems. The proposed REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation) could lead to an

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RECOMMENDATIONS

1)

Prioritize to protect biodiversity and ecosystem ser- vice hotspots, even when partially degraded, to halt further degradation and allow for restoration plan- ning to commence. Conservation, within the context of spatial planning, provides by far the most cost efficient way to secure ecosystem services. This is particularly criti- cal for areas with high degree of land pressures and de- velopment. Ensure that investments in restoration are combined with long-term ecosystem management in both re- stored and in surrounding areas to ensure gradual re- covery. Overseas Development Agencies, International finance agencies and other funders including regional development banks and bilateral agencies should fac- tor ecosystem restoration into development support; job generation and poverty alleviation funding. Infrastructure projects that damage an ecosystem should set aside funds to restore a similar degraded ecosystem elsewhere in a country or community. Pay- ments for Ecosystem Services should include a propor- tion of the payment for the restoration and rehabilitation of damaged and degraded ecosystems. One percent of GDP should be considered a target for investments in conservation and restoration. Apply a multidisciplinary approach across stake- holders in order to make restoration investments successful. Wise investments reduce future costs and future public expenses, but it is imperative that the driving forces and pressures behind the initial degra- dation are addressed in order to secure progressive re- covery and that local stakeholders become involved and benefit from the restoration process. Ensure that restoration projects take into account the changing world: Ecosystem restoration should be implemented in consideration of scenarios for change in

a continually changing world, including climate change and land pressures. Changes in surrounding areas or in the prevailing environmental conditions will influence both the rate of recovery and ultimate restoration success. Restoration needs to address a range of scales from intense hotspot restoration to large-scale restoration to meet regional changes in land degradation. Degree of biodiversity restored is often linked to quality of ser- vices obtained and is intrinsically linked to successful outcome. Ensure that ecosystem restoration is implemented, guided by experiences learned to date, to ensure that this tool is used appropriately and without unexpected consequences, such as the unintended introduction of invasive species and pests and sudden abandonment of restoration targets in the process. Apply ecosystem restoration as an active policy option for addressing challenges of health, water supply and quality and wastewater management by improving water- sheds and wetlands, enhancing natural filtration. Apply ecosystem restoration as an active policy option for disaster prevention and mitigation from floods, tsuna- mis, storms or drought. Coral reefs, mangroves, wetlands, catchment forests and vegetation, marshes and natural ri- parian vegetation provide some of the most efficient flood and storm mitigation systems available and restoration of these ecosystems should be a primary incentive in flood risk and disaster mitigation planning. Enhance further use of ecosystem restoration as a mean for carbon sequestration, adaptation to and miti- gation of climate change. The restoration targets for se- questration includes among other forests, wetlands, ma- rine ecosystems such as mangroves, seagrasses and salt marshes, and other land use practices.

6)

2)

7)

3)

8)

9)

4)

10)

5)

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CONTENTS

11)

Improve food security through ecosystem restoration. Given the significance of food production and its relations to biodiversity and ecosystems loss, expanded recommen- dations are presented: Strengthen natural pest control: Restoration of field edges, crop diversity and wild crop relatives, forests and wetlands is a tool for improving natural weed, pest and disease control in agricultural production. This should be combined with biological control including establish- ment and facilitation of natural predator host plants and insects, enzymes, mites or natural pathogens. Improve and restore soil fertility: Research and Develop- ment funds into agriculture should become a primary investment source for financing restoration of lost and degraded soils, improve soil fertility and water catch- ment capacity, by investing in small-scale eco-agricul- tural, agro-forestry- and intercropping systems Support more diversified and resilient agricultural systems that provide critical ecosystem services (water supply and regulation, habitat for wild plants and animals, genetic di- versity, pollination, pest control, climate regulation), as well as adequate food to meet local and consumer needs. This includes managing extreme rainfall and using inter-crop- ping to minimize dependency on external inputs like artifi- cial fertilizers, pesticides and blue irrigation water. Support should also be provided for the development and imple- mentation of green technology for small-scale farmers. Improve irrigation systems and reduce evapo-transpira- tion in intercropping and green technology irrigation or rainfall capture systems. Improve water supply and quality and wastewater man- agement in rural, peri-urban, and urban areas through restoration of field edges, riparian zones, forest cover in catchments, extent of green areas and wetland restoration. a. b. c. d. e.

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PREFACE SUMMARY INTRODUCTION – ECOSYSTEM SERVICES GLOBAL LANDUSE CHANGE AND SCENARIOS OF BIODIVERSITY LOSS ECOSYSTEM RESTORATION FOR BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION A FOCUS ON FORESTS ECOSYSTEM RESTORATION FOR WATER SUPPLY ECOSYSTEM RESTORATION FOR HEALTH AND WASTE WATER MANAGEMENT ECOSYSTEM RESTORATION FOR FOOD SECURITY ECOSYSTEM RESTORATION FOR CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION ECOSYSTEM RESTORATION FOR DISASTER PREVENTION AND MITIGATION THE FINANCIAL BENEFITS OF ECOSYSTEM RESTORATION – GREEN ECONOMY RESTORATION AND RECOVERY OF ERODED AND OVERGRAZED ARID GRASS AND SHRUBLANDS ECOSYSTEM RESTORATION AND REHABILITATION – LESSONS LEARNT RESTORATION OF A DEPLETED CRAYFISH FISHERY IN EUROPE – LESSONS LEARNT CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

11 17

21

24 37

43

51

59

69

73

78

82

90

95

98 99

GLOSSARY ACRONYMS CONTRIBUTORS REFERENCES

100 102

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INTRODUCTION – ECOSYSTEM SERVICES

Ecosystems and our natural environment constitute the platform upon which our entire existence is based (Costanza et al ., 1997). The services on which we depend include not only the air that we breathe and the joy of wildlife, but form the very basis of our food pro- duction, freshwater supply, natural filtering of pollution, buffers against pests and diseas- es and buffers against disasters such as floods, hurricanes and tsunamis. The MA (2005) described four catagories of services, provisioning, regulating, supporting and cultural.

An Ecosystem is the dynamic complex of plant, animal and micro-organism communities and the nonliving environment interacting as a functional unit. It assumes that people are an integral part of ecosystems (MA, 2005). Ecosystem Services are the benefits that people obtain from ecosystems. They can be described as provisioning services (e.g. food, water, timber); regulating services (e.g. regulation of climate, floods, disease, waste and water quality); cultural services (e.g. recreational, aesthetic and spiritual) and supporting services (e.g. soil forma- tion, photosynthesis and nutrient cycling) (MA, 2005). Ecosystems ensure pollination, so crucial for agricultural pro- duction (Allenwardell et al ., et al ., 1998; Brown and Paxton, 2009; Jaffe et al ., 2010), estimated at 153 billion USD in 2005 (Gallai et al ., 2009) and it includes supply of water not only for irrigation and household use, but also for cooling in indus- trial processes, dilution of toxic substances and a transporta- tion route (UNEP, 2010). It is also critical to health, not only through water supply and quality and through natural filter- ing of wastewater (UNEP, 2010). 80 % of people in developing countries rely on traditional plant-based medicines for basic healthcare (Farnsworth et al ., 1985) and three-quarters of the world’s top-selling prescription drugs include ingredients de- rived from plant extracts” (Masood, 2005), providing a string of services from rich to poor alike, but with particular value to the impoverished (Sodhi et al ., 2010; UNEP, 2009).

dance of natural enemies present to counter the pest species involved, such as in coffee production (Batchelor et al ., 2005; Johnson et al ., 2010). Although biological systems are complex, improved pest control is often founded on a diversity of natural predators, and non-crop habitats are fundamental for the sur- vival and presence of these biological control agents (predators, parasitoids) (Zhang et al . 2007). Landscape diversity or com- plexity, and proximity to semi-natural habitats tends to produce a greater abundance and species richness of natural enemies (Balmford et al . 2008, Bianchi et al . 2006; Kremen & Chaplin- Kramer 2007; Tscharntke et al . 2007).

Pest control is another key ecosystem service underpinned by biodiversity; it seems to be greatly determined by the abun-

Global change will alter the supply of ecosystem services that are vital for human well-being (Schröter et al ., 2005). Without

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Direct and indirect economic benefits from wetlands US Dollars per hectare per year

functioning natural ecosystems, water supply for the world’s food production would collapse, not only causing economic col- lapse and crisis in the entire financial system, it would also en- danger health and lives of billions, and, hence, ultimately our survival (UNEP, 2009). The economic value of these ecosystem services were estimated at 16–54 trillion USD annually already in 1997 or corresponding to ca. 21–72 trillion USD in 2008 (CPI/inflation adjusted) compared to an estimated World Gross National Income (Atlas method, Worldbank) in 2008 of 58 tril- lion USD (Costanza et al ., 1997). (N.B. Please note that there is substatial uncertainty with regard to these numbers. Updated figures are expected to be available by 2010/11). At the same time, almost one third of the worlds ecosystems has been transformed or destroyed, and another third heavily fragment- ed and disturbed, and the last third already suffering from invasive species and pollution (UNEP, 2001; www.globio.info). Over 60% of the ecosystems services are considered degraded (MA, 2005). The big five human threats to the environment in the form of 1) habitat loss and fragmentation; 2) unsustainable harvest; 3) pollution; 4) climate change; and 5) introduction of exotic invasive species, are combined or individually rapidly not only destroying and degrad- ing our ecosystems, they are also depleting and ruining the very services from them upon which we base our health and prosperity. It is the vast and rapid loss of these ecosystems, and our depen- dence on these services, that require us to consider their res- toration and rehabilitation. In this report, UNEP together with partners address the ultimate challenge to sustainable develop- ment, namely ensuring that ecosystems will continue to support human prosperity and well-being on a diverse planet. The objective of this report is to provide an overview of some of the most crucial services rendered by natural ecosystems to humankind and how they can be restored as part of policy de- velopment to partially resolve key challenges of water, health, As ecosystems are removed or degraded through acute one off events, or more often as a result of chronic contamination, deg- radation from development and other human activities – not only does this lead to direct costs over time but also to prob- lems such as lowered productivity, food insexurity and health problems, thus threatening sustainable development. Why is ecosystem restoration needed?

Fishing Leisure Domestic sewage treatment Local freshwater supply Carbon sequestration

Firewood

2 000

Agricultural production Downstream fisheries

Industrial wastewater treatment

1 500

1000

Flood attenuation

500

Note: Data derived from Muthurajawela wetland sanctuary, Sri Lanka. Source: Emerton l. and Kekulandala L. D., Assessment of the Economic Value of Muthurajawela Wetland, 2003

0

Figure 1: Benefits from wetlands.

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Ecosystem connectivity and impacts on ecosystem services from human activities

Socio-economic changes for coastal populations

Decreased fisheries, decreased revenues from tourism, and decreased storm buffering

Habitat destruction

Changes in nutrients, sediments and freshwater outputs

Loss of mangrove and seagrass habitat

Increased sedimentation and nutrient imput

Decreased storm buffering and increased coastal erosion

Loss of coral reef habitat

Mangroves

Land

Decreased storm buffering

Coral reef

Y Y Y Y

YY

Y

Seagrasses

Y Y Y

Y Y YYYYYYYYYYY

Y

Offshore waters

Export of fish and invertebrate larvae and adults Storm buffering Export of organic material and

Sediments

Binding sediments

Binding sediments

Absorb inorganic nutrients Slow freshwater discharge

Absorb inorganic nutrients

Nutrients

Freshwater discharge

Export of invertebrate and fish larvae Fish and invertebrate habitat (adult migration) for nearshore and offshore food webs Export of organic material and nutrients

nutrients for nearshore and offshore food webs

Storm buffering

Ecosystem connectivity

Fish and invertebrate habitat

Export of invertebrate and fish larvae Fish and invertebrate habitat (adult migration)

Impacts

Source: WCMC, Framing the Flow, 2010.

Figure 2: Ecosystem connectivity and impacts on ecosystem services from human activities.

environment, food security and disaster mitigation. It also ad- dresses the key financial benefits involved in conservation, eco- system restoration or ultimate loss of ecosystems and their role in sustainable development. This includes not only the com-

plexities of ecological restoration, but also the importance of integrating the multistaker community involved, influencing and influenced by the initial degradation and in the benefits of restoration (Brander et al ., 2006; Granek et al ., 2010).

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CASE STUDY #1

Before (1995, top) and after (2005, bottom) restoration views of surface coal mine Corta Alloza (Andorra, Teruel, NE Spain). An ecosystem restoration approach was applied to this case to re- establish the connectivity between terrestrial and aquatic habitats and to provide ecossytems services for the human populations living in the municipality. Corta Alloza and Utrillas coal mine restoration, Spain

Project and photos credit: Endesa S.A. & Francisco A. Comin, Instituto Pire- naico de Ecologia-CSIC

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What is ecosystem restoration?

Restoration can be defined as re-establishing the pre- sumed structure, productivity and species diversity that was originally present at a site that has been degraded, damaged or destroyed. In time, the ecological processes and functions of the restored habitat will closely match those of the original* habitat (SER, 2004; FAO, 2005). The concept of landscape restoration tackles the broader range of issues and needs via a landscape-scale approach, “a planned process that aims to regain ecological integrity and enhance human wellbeing in deforested or degraded landscapes” (WWF International 2007). Reclamation aims to recover productivity (but little of the original biodiversity) at a degraded site. In time, the protective function and many of the original* ecological services may be re-established. Reclamation is often done with exotic species but may also involve native species. (WWF/IUCN 2000) The objective of rehabilitation is to re-establish the produc- tivity and some, but not necessarily all, of the plant and ani- mal species thought to be originally* present at a site. (For ecological or economic reasons the new habitat might also include species not originally present at the site). In time, the protective function and many of the ecological services of the original habitat may be re-established (FAO 2005). Regeneration is often viewed as the growth or re-emergence of the native species in a place after it has been destroyed or degraded, resulting from the protection of an area from biotic interference. Regeneration may come about naturally or result from human intervention (CFIOR websites). Recovery of a habitat is linked to the ecological succes- sion of a site. That is the site returning naturally to the state it had been before it had been degraded or destroyed without any intervention from humans (CFIOR websites). * While restoration-related definitions often focus on ‘original’ habitat cover, it may be more appropriate in the future to focus on restoring resilient natural habitats, for example through paying attention to con- nectivity and dispersal, rather than assuming that all ‘original’ species will persist under changed conditions. From this point of view, ‘poten- tial’ would be substituted for ‘original’ in the above definitions.

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Modern agricultural methods and technologies brought spectacular increases in food production, but are also a primary cause of habitat loss and ecosystem destruction (Til- man et al ., 2002). Clearance for cropland or permanent pasture has already reduced the extent of natural habitats on agriculturally usable land by more than 50% (Green et al 2005), and much of the rest has been altered by temporary grazing (Groombridge and Jenkins, 2002). Habitat modification already affects more than 80% of globally threat- ened mammals, birds and plants (Groombridge and Jenkins, 2002), with implications for ecosystem services and human well-being. Of the world’s land, cosatal and ocean area, only 13%, 6% and less than 1%, respectively, are within protcted areas (WDPA, 2010). GLOBAL LANDUSE CHANGE AND SCENARIOS OF BIODIVERSITY LOSS

Despite its crucial role for providing ecosystem services agricul- ture remains the largest driver of genetic erosion, species loss and conversion of natural habitats (MA, 2005). Globally over 4,000 assessed plant and animal species are threatened by agricultural intensification (IUCN, 2008). A central component in avoiding loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services, such as water, from ex- panding agricultural production and resource extraction is to limit the trade-off between economic growth and biodiversity by stimu- lating to agricultural productivity and more efficient land use. Most global scenarios project increased use of land for arable crops and grazing. Scenarios from the Global Environmental Outlook, The Millennium Assessment and the Global Biodi- versity Outlook all show increases of land use as a result of a growing population and increased economic development. Further enhancement of agricultural productivity (‘closing the yield gap’) and reduction of post harvest losses are key factors in reducing the increased need for land and, consequently, the rate of biodiversity loss (CBD, 2008). These options should be implemented carefully in order not to cause new undesired negative effects, such as emissions of nutrients and pesticides,

as well as risks of land degradation. An increase in protected areas and change towards more eco-agricultural cropping sys- tems and sustainable meat production could have immediate positive effects on both biodiversity and water resource man- agement, while increasing revenues from tourism. A reduction of crop- and pasture land can only be achieved if dras- tic changes in diets are assumed. Some of these more extreme scenarios are presented by Wise et al . (2009) and Stehfest et al ., (2009). They suggest that if enhanced agricultural productivity is assumed and the consumption of meat is greatly reduced then large areas will become available for forest and natural grassland recovery. Some scenarios also predict a shift of agricultural pro- duction towards different regions, resulting in a reduction of ag- ricultural land in, for example, Europe. Recovery of biodiversity is possible on abandoned land, but the rate and quality depend on actions taken on these lands. In models like GLOBIO this factor is not yet incorporated at this stage. Autonomous recov- ery is a slow process and is represented by the land use category ‘secondary forest’ in GLOBIO (Alkemade et al ., 2009). Restora- tion activities for example plantations may speed up the recovery process, but are not included in the GLOBIO model.

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1700

C

Landuse and agriculture

L

M

Y Regrowth after use Extensive grasslands (incl pasture) Agricultural land CM

MY

Forests Grasslands Non-productive land

CY

CMY

K

2000

Figure 3: Projected landuse changes 1700– 2050. Loss of biodiversity with continued agri- cultural expansion, pollution, climate change and infrastructure development (GLOBIO) (Alkemade et al ., 2009)

2050

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4_423_GLOBIObiodiversity.pdf 2009-01-14 14:39:42

1700

1700

Biodiversity, as ratio of species abundance before human impacts

High impacts Biodiversity, as ratio of species abundance before human impacts

50 - 75 25 - 50 0 - 25

Medium-low impacts High-medium impacts High impacts

50 - 75 25 - 50 0 - 25

Medium-low impacts High-medium impacts

Low impacts

75 - 100 %

Mean species abundance (%) Low imp cts

75 - 100 %

Mean species abundance (%)

2000

2000

2050

2050

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The conservation of biodiversity is recognised as important due to the role biodiversity plays in underpinning many of the ecosystem services which humans depend upon form their well-being (MA 2005). Furthermore, it is well documented globally that habi- tat loss is a direct driver of species loss, and one mechanism to bring species diversity back to a site is through restoration of the ecosystem or habitat (SER 2010). And while it has been documented that restoration does not necessary achieve the same value of biodiversity or ecosystem services found in intact ecosystems (Benayas et al 2009), there are many good examples of were informed ecological restoration programmes have been able to deliver biodiversity, including the recovery of threatened species and ecosystems (Lindenmayer et al . In press). ECOSYSTEM RESTORATION FOR BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION

Although ecological restoration is now being undertaken throughout the world, evidence regarding the effectiveness of such activities has been lacking. However, a systematic meta- analysis of 89 restoration assessments was recently published in the journal Science, integrating the results obtained from restoration actions in a wide range of ecosystem types from throughout the world. Results indicated that ecosystem res- toration was consistently effective in improving ecosystem services (Banayas et al ., 2009). From the 89 studies, 526 quantitative measures of variables re- lating to biodiversity and ecosystem services were extracted and incorporated into a database. The ecosystem services were clas- sified according to the scheme developed by the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA, 2005), which distinguishes four categories: 1) supporting (e.g., nutrient cycling and primary production), (2) provisioning (e.g., timber, fish, food crops),

The services humankind receives from complex ecosystems include regulation of water supplies and water quality, main- tenance of soil fertility, carbon sequestration, climate change mitigation and enhanced food security, to mention a few. Pro- vision of these services is dependent upon the functioning of ecosystems, which is characterized by complex interactions between organisms and their biological and chemical environ- ments. The environmental degradation that has occurred in many parts of the world has a negative impact on such func- tioning, and can reduce the provision of services on which hu- man livelihoods depend. Ecological restoration is increasingly being used to reverse the environmental degradation caused by human activities. One of the key objectives of such restoration is to improve the functioning of degraded ecosystems, to increase both biodi- versity and the ecosystem services provided to humankind.

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Correlations between response ratios for biodiversity and for provision of ecosystem services

Response ratio for services

4

Supporting Regulating Provisioning Ecosystem service function

3

2

1

0

-1

-2

-1

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Response ratio for biodiversity

Source: Benayas, et al. Enhancement of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services by Ecological Restoration: A Meta-Analysis, Science, 2009.

Figure 4: The relationship between biodiversity and degree of ecosystem service restored.

The meta-analysis revealed another crucial finding: increases in biodiversity and ecosystem service measures after restora- tion were positively correlated. This indicates that restoration actions focused on enhancing biodiversity should support in- creased provision of ecosystem services, particularly in tropi- cal terrestrial biomes. Conversely, these results suggest that ecosystem restoration focused mainly on improving services should also have a primary aim at restoring biodiversity, as eco- system services and biodiversity are intrinsically linked. Ecological restoration can act as an engine of economy and a source of green employment, so the results of this research give policymakers an extra incentive to restore degraded ecosystems.

(3) regulating (e.g., of climate, water supply, and soil charac- teristics), and (4) cultural (e.g., aesthetic value). In the study only the first three services were assessed, because cultural services were not measured explicitly in any of the studies ad- dressed. Measures of biodiversity were typically related to the abundance, species richness, diversity, growth, or biomass of organisms present. The study revealed that ecological restoration increased pro- vision of biodiversity and ecosystem services by 44 and 25%, respectively across the 89 studies of different restoration proj- ects. However, values of both remained lower in restored ver- sus intact reference ecosystems, underlining the challenges and timescales required to fully restore a degraded ecosystem. Ecological restoration was particularly effective in tropical ter- restrial areas, which hold the largest amounts of biodiversity and are usually subject to high levels of human pressure.

 Figure 5: Ecosystem service response to restoration in differ- ent biomes.

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Ecosystem services responses to restoration for different biomes

0.9 Median response ratio for analysed surveys

Tropical terrestrial

Number of surveys taken into account

0.8

85 70 20

0.7

Restored versus degraded ecosystems Restored versus reference ecosystems

0.6

0.5

0.4

Temperate terrestrial

0.3

0.2

Temperate aquatic

Tropical aquatic

0.1

0

-0.1

-0.2

-0.3

-0.4

Source: Benayas, et al. Enhancement of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services by Ecological Restoration: A Meta-Analysis, Science, 2009.

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A FOCUS ON FORESTS

Extensive and ongoing deforestation during the past fifty years has lead to loss of biodiversity and decline in the goods and services for rural people (TEEB, 2008). Forests provide an array of benefits, from clean water, regulation of climate and biodi- versity protection to sources of income, fuel and food (Kaimow- itz, 2003; Chazdon, 2008). An estimated 1.6 billion people in the world rely heavily on forest resources for their livelihoods (WRI, 2005; Chomitz, 2007). They range from multinational companies to rural farmers. In a time of widespread global poverty, increasing population and degraded ecosystems, these benefits are increasingly important. However, the ability of forests to deliver the economic, environmental and social ben- efits we all need to survive and prosper is serious under threat (Chomitz, 2007). Intensive exploitation coupled with the rapid Stairway to restoration Sta rway to restoration Stair ay to restoration Stairway to restoration

Increased and higher quality habitats for animals and plants; A secure and high-quality supply of water; Prevention and reduction of land degradation; A secure source of biomass and biofuel energy; Environmentally sound and socially acceptable carbon se- questration; Adequate and sustainable income and employment oppor- tunities for rural communities; Sustainable source of timber for forest industries and local communities; Sound return on investment for forestry investors; Increased resilience and resistance to climate change; Additional sources of non-timber forest products such as growth of population, consumption patterns, development of agriculture, urban construction and other related disturbances as well as improper forest management, have resulted in large and expanding areas of degraded forest ecosystems (Wenhua, 2004, TEEB, 2008). This trend can be reversed through resto- ration and rehabilitation forests of degraded forest ecosystems. In both developed and developing countries, assisted restora- tion and unassisted forest regeneration are gaining momentum (Sayer et al , 2004; Chazdon, 2008). Forests are being restored for many purposes in many ways and at increasing rates by lo- cal communities, non-governmental organisations and private agencies, as well as through state and national programmes. The projects and programmes have differed in scale, objectives, • • • • • • • Some of the benefits of forest restoration

Low Low Low Low

High High High High

Natural regeneration Natural regeneration Natural regeneration Natural regeneration

3 3 3 3

Assigned natural regeneration Assigned natural regeneration Assigned natural regeneration Assigned natural regeneration

2 2 2 2 Commercial restoration Commercial restoration Commercial restoration Commercial restoration Restoration with native species Restoration with native species Restoration with native species Restoration with native species

Biodiversity and ecosystem services Biodiversity and ecosystem services Biodiversity and ecosystem services Biodiversity and ecosystem servic s

Time and costs Time and costs Time and costs Time and costs

1 1 1 1

Rehabilitation Rehabilitation Rehabilitation Rehabilitation

Reclamation Reclamation Reclamation Reclamation

High High High High

Low Low Low Low

State of degradation State of degradation State of degradation State of degradation

Low Low Low Low

High High High High

• • • • • •

Figure 6: The restoration staircase. production of some products such as timber; or recovery of biodiversity and ecosystem services Source: adapted from Chazdon et al., Beyond Deforestation: Restoring Forests and Ecosystem Services on Degraded Lands , Science 2008 Depending on the state of degradation of an ecosystem, a range of management approaches can at least partially restore levels of biodiversity and ecosystem services given adequate time (years) and financial investment (capital, infrastructure and labour). Outcomes of particular restoration approaches are: restoration of soil fertility for supporting ecosystems; producti f some products such as timber; or recovery of biodiversity and ecosystem services Source: adapted from Chazdon et al., Beyond Deforestation: Restoring Forests and Ecosystem Services on Degraded Lands , Science 2008 1 2 3 Depending on the state of degradation of an ecosystem, a range of management approaches can at least partially restore levels of biodiversity and ecosystem services given adequate time (years) and financial investment (capital, infrastructure and lab ur). Outcomes of particular restoration approaches are: restoration of soil fertility for supporting ecosystems; production of some products such as timber; or recovery of biodiversity and ecosystem services Sourc : adapted from Chazdon et al., Beyond Deforestation: Restoring Forests and Ecosystem Services on Degraded Lands , Science 2008 1 2 3 Depending on the state of degradation of an ecosystem, a range of management approaches can t least partially re tore levels of biodiversity and ecosystem services given dequa e time (years) and financial nvestm nt (capital, infrastructure and labour). Outcomes of particular restoration approaches a e: restoration of soil fertility for supporting ecosystems; productio f m products such as timber; or covery of biodiversity and ecosys em services Source: adapted from Chazdon et al., Beyond Deforestation: Restoring Forests and Ecosystem Services on Degraded Lands , Science 2008 1 2 3 1 2 3 Depending on the state of degradation of an ecosystem, a range of management approaches can at least partially restore levels of biodiversity and ecosystem services given adequate time (years) and financial investment (capital, infrastructure and labour). Outcomes of particular restoration approaches are: restoration of soil fertility for supporting ecosystems;

medicinal plants and marketable goods; Recreation and tourism opportunities; Increased property values near restored areas;

Enhanced economic and environmental security and miti- gation of risk form global economic and environmental change.

Source: Global Partnership on Forest Landscape Restoration (GPFLR), http://www.ideastransformlandscapes.org

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Figure 7: Worldwide benefits from biodiversity in Madagascar.

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implementation strategies, duration, and in how much they considered socio-economic and institutional aspects, which are essential for successful restoration (CIFOR, 2002). Forest restoration can restore many ecosystem functions and recover many components of the original biodiversity. Approaches to restoring functionality in forest ecosystems depend strongly on the initial state of forest or land degradation and the desired outcome, time frame, and financial constraints (Fig. 6). In many deforested, degraded and fragmented forest habitats investments in restoration and rehabilitation forests can yield high biodiversity conservation and livelihood benefits (Sayer et al , 2003, Chazdon, 2008; TEEB, 2009; TEEB, 2009). What are the benefits to biodiversity/conservation from forest restoration? Restoration in densely settled tropical areas can have more im- pact on biodiversity than further extension of “paper parks” in remote, pristine forests and can also deliver important forest

goods and services to a wider range of stakeholders (Sayer et al , 2003). Retention of even small fragments of natural vegetation is justified by their great potential value in providing the build- ing blocks for future restoration programmes. Restored forests can improve ecosystem services and enhance biodiversity con- servation (Chazdon, 2008). Along the Mata Atlantica in Brazil a non-profit organization named Instituto Terra undertakes ac- tive restoration of degraded stands of Atlantic Forest by estab- lishing tree nurseries to replant denuded areas (Instituto Terra 2007). Benefits include biodiversity enhancement, water regu- lation, carbon storage and sequestration as well as preventing soil erosion. In Vietnam, forest restoration thorough planting indigenous tree species and fostering natural regeneration has lead to increased water supply as well as increased and higher quality habitats for animals and plants as shown in case study 2 (Poffenberger, 2006). Restoring eucalyptus woodlands and dry forests on land used for intensive cattle farming in south- east Australia was found to yield numerous benefits including reversing the loss of biodiversity, halting land degradation due to dryland salinisation and thereby increasing land productivity (Dorrough and Moxham, 2005).

CASE STUDY #2

In Son La District in Northwestern Vietnam, Tai and Hmong communities have managed upland forests for generations. Forests are classified according to function including old growth protected areas (Pa Dong), younger secondary forests that are part of long rotation swiddens (Pa Kai), early regenerating for- ests (Pa Loa) and bamboo forests (Pa). The lands are held un- der communal tenure and allow for a well-managed landscape that supports considerable biodiversity. In Cao Bang Province, to the North the Nung an ethnic community found that their lime- stone forests had degraded because of the growing fuelwood and timber extraction pressures from State Forest Enterprises and local villages. After biodiversity and hydrology began to de- teriorate in the 1960s and1970s, the communities in Phuc Sen organised to divide forest protection among the 12 villages. A combination of planting with indigenous pioneering tree species like mac, rac and more valuable timber species, combined with Restoration of limestone forests in Phuc Sen in Northwestern Vietnam natural regeneration, has led to the reforestation of many of the limestone hillocks in the area. The restoration of the limestone forests has facilitated the reestablishment of spring flows that provide water for the lowland rice fields. It has also allowed for the return of many indigenous mammal species, including five endemic and 26 rare species. The process is currently being rep- licated through a Community Forest Network operating at the district and provincial level (Dzung et al ., 2004). In many parts of upland Southeast Asia, communities are organising to pro- tect threatened upland forests. Part of these initiatives deal with outside pressures from private sector timber enterprises as well as from the expansion and commercialisation of agriculture. The emergence of community forestry networks is apparent in up- land areas of Indonesia, Vietnam, Thailand and Cambodia. Source: Poffenberger, 2006 pg. 11

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