The Ocean and Us

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank Carl Nettleton, Open Oceans Global, for his excellent review , and Garth Cripps, Blue Ventures Conservation, for his wonderful photos. Partners This publication was made possible by the AGEDI Oceans and Blue Carbon Community Special Initiative of the Eye on Earth Movement. Eye on Earth addresses the crucial importance of environmental and societal information and networking to decision-making. Under the guidance and patronage of His Highness Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan, President of the United Arab Emirates, the Abu Dhabi Global Environmental Data Initiative (AGEDI) was formed in 2002 to address responses to the critical need for readily accessible, accurate environmental data and information for all those who need it. With the Arab region as a priority area of focus, AGEDI facilitates access to quality environmental data that equips policy-makers with actionable, timely information to inform and guide critical decisions. AGEDI is supported by Environment Agency – Abu Dhabi (EAD) on a local level, and by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), regionally and internationally. For more information, visit www.agedi.ae. GRID-Arendal has served as the chief editor of this publication. GRID-Arendal is a centre collaborating with the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), supporting informed decision-making and awareness-raising. GRID-Arendal supports the integration of marine and coastal ecosystem services into planning and decision making through a range of global projects developing and sharing good practice and building capacity of institutions and practitioners. Linwood Pendleton holds the International Chair of Excellence for Marine Ecosystem Services within the Centre for the Law and Economics of the Sea at the European Institute for Marine Studies, University of Western Brittany. He is also Senior Scholar at the Nicholas Institute for Environmental Policy Solutions at Duke University. Anne Kaup is the Executive Manager of the Marine Ecosystem Services Partnership. The United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC) has contributed the chapters on Data Requirements and Linking to Policy-Making of this publication. UNEP-WCMC is the specialist biodiversity assessment centre of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the world’s foremost intergovernmental environmental organization. The Centre has been in operation for over 30 years, combining scientific research with practical policy advice. The Nature Conservancy’s Mapping Ocean Wealth project has made their infographics and case studies available to this publication. Mapping Ocean Wealth’s mission is to describe – in quantitative terms – all that the ocean does for us today, so that we make smarter investments and decisions affecting what the ocean can do for us tomorrow. Supported by a consortium of global organizations, Mapping Ocean Wealth is informed by rapidly advancing marine science and field-based studies from around the globe that examine what drives the value of ecosystems and how they benefit people. The Marine Ecosystem Services Partnership (MESP) strives to improve communication between valuation researchers and policy makers by providing contextual perspectives for understanding valuation data in relation to environmental management decisions. The Partnership aims to be a community of practice through which data users and managers can work collectively to better integrate ecosystem services data with marine policy needs. This collaboration is aided with the use of tools such as the MESP mapper and valuation library that provides access to a collection of economic valuation studies and data found on the MESP website.

Project Team

an initiative of

CENTREFORTHELAWANDECONOMICSOFTHE SEA

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Editors Christian Neumann, GRID-Arendal, Arendal, Norway Tanya Bryan, GRID-Arendal
, Arendal, Norway Linwood Pendleton, Nicholas Institute for Environmental Policy Solutions at Duke University, Durham, USA; Centre for the Law and Economics of the Sea at the European Institute for Marine Studies, University of Western Brittany, Brest, France Anne Kaup, Marine Ecosystem Services Partnership Jane Glavan, Abu Dhabi Global Environmental Data Initiative, Abu Dhabi, UAE Chapter Contributors Introduction: Christian Neumann, Tanya Bryan, Linwood Pendleton, Anne Kaup
 How do Marine and Coastal Ecosystem Services Support the SDGs?: Luke Brander, VU University Amsterdam, The Netherlands; University of Hong Kong, China and Corinne Baulcomb, Scotland’s Rural College, Edinburgh, UK
 The Ocean’s Ecosystem Services: A new language for an Ancient Wisdom: Glenn Edney, Ocean-Spirit Marine and Coastal Data Requirements to Achieve Sustainable Development Goals: Lauren V. Weatherdon, Chris McOwen, Corinne S. Martin, Hannah Thomas, UNEP-World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC), Cambridge, UK Linking Marine and Coastal Ecosystem Services to Policy-Making
: Steve Fletcher, UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge, UK Policy Actions That Ensure Marine and Coastal Ecosystem Services support the SDGs: Christian Neumann
 The Future Management of Marine and Coastal Ecosystem Services for People: Linwood Pendleton, Anne Kaup Maps and Graphics Pages 8, 9, 10, 16, 18, 19, 21, 22, 35, 43, 46: Hisham Ashkar Opinion - piece Contributors (in order of appearance) Pawan Patil, The World Bank
 Nicole Glineur, Global Environment Facility
 Paul van Gardingen, Ecosystem Services for Poverty Alleviation Programme Yvonne Sadovy and Claudio Campagna, IUCN SSC Marine Conservation Sub-Committee Catherine Lovelock, The University of Queensland Vera Scholz, Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) Andrew Hudson, United Nations Development Programme
 Alasdair Harris, Blue Ventures Conservation

Preferred Report Citation Neumann, C., T. Bryan, L. Pendleton, A. Kaup, J. Glavan (eds). 2015. The Ocean and Us. AGEDI Abu Dhabi, UAE/GRID-Arendal, Arendal, Norway. 56pp Preferred Chapter Citation (example) Brander, L. and C. Baulcomb. 2015. How Do Marine Ecosystem Services Support the Sustainable Development Goals? In: The Ocean and Us. Neumann, C., T. Bryan, L. Pendleton, A. Kaup, J. Glavan (eds). AGEDI Abu Dhabi, UAE/GRID-Arendal, Arendal, Norway. pp. 14-25.

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Table of Abbreviations

BD BIP EBV

Biodiversity

Biodiversity Indicators Partnership Essential Biodiversity Variables Ecosystem Services for Poverty Alleviation

ESPA GDP GEF GHG IPBES LDCs LME LMMA MCES

Gross domestic product Global Environment Facility

Greenhouse Gases

Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and ecosystem Services

Least Developed Countries Large Marine Ecosystems Locally managed marine areas Marine Ecosystem Services Marine protected areas Marine Spatial Planning Marine and coastal ecosystem services

MES MPA MSP

NBSAP

National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans

OHI SDG SEEA SIDS TEEB

Ocean Health Index

Sustainable Development Goals

System of Environmental-Economic Accounting

Small Island Development States

The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea United Nations Environment Programme Wealth Accounting and the Valuation of Ecosystem Services

UNCLOS UNEP WAVES

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Table of Contents

Acknowledgements 2

Table of Abbreviations 4

Preface 6

Executive Summary 8

Introduction 10

The Ocean Economy and Sustainable Development 14

How Do Marine and Coastal Ecosystem Services Support the Sustainable Development Goals? 16

The Ocean’s ‘Ecosystem Services’: A New Language for an Ancient Wisdom 32

Marine and Coastal Data Requirements to Achieve Sustainable Development Goals 36

Linking Marine and Coastal Ecosystem Services to Policy-Making 42

Policy Actions That Ensure Marine and Coastal Ecosystem Services support the SDGs 46

The Future Management of Marine and Coastal Ecosystems for People 48

References 52

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Preface

The ocean has been a cornerstone of human development throughout the history of civilization. People continue to come to the coasts to build some of the largest cities on the planet, with thriving economies, culture and communities. Ocean and coastal ecosystems provide us with resources and trade opportunities that greatly benefit human well-being. These benefits are often taken for granted as we fail to recognize their underlying value. In our narrow pursuit of progress through purely economic and social development we often fail to protect the health of our marine system that we depend upon. Today, however, we increasingly realize the importance of healthy ecosystems for sustainable development that is reflected in the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) recently adopted by the United Nations. We can no longer afford to apply an antagonistic paradigm between development and conservation. The SDG framework provides the world with the opportunity to transform how we think about the ‘Oceans and Us’. This publication highlights the critical contribution of healthy marine and coastal ecosystems to achieving the SDGs and describes the role of credible and accessible data, well communicated knowledge generated through dialogue with users, in supporting informed decision-making.

Chief Scientist and ad interim Director of UNEP’s Division of Early Warning and Assessment Prof. Jacqueline McGlade

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Garth Cripps, Blue Ventures, 2015

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Executive Summary

The ocean, together with the ecosystems, habitats and species therein, provides benefits to humans in numerous and diverse ways, and this is reflected in many aspects of humanity’s religions and traditions, stretching back to the dawn of civilization. This understanding is also captured in the 17 United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) adopted in 2015, which aim to reconcile the needs of people, the planet, prosperity, peace and partnerships. The SDGs focus more on the environment than the preceding set of Millennium Development Goals,. While the importance of a healthy ocean is recognized through a dedicated goal (Goal 14), the role it plays in sustainable development goes far beyond this goal alone. The ocean produces half the oxygen we breathe, provided us with some 135million tonnes of fish, seafood and aquatic plants for food and industrial application and contributed 16 per cent of the global population’s animal protein intake. Marine fisheries alone supported an estimated 200 million full-time equivalent jobs - about one in every fifteen people employed on the
 planet. Over half of nearly 5,000 patented genes of marine organisms have found applications 
in pharmacology
and human health.
 At the same time, the coasts are also a social, cultural and spiritual home for people. Overall, we find a healthy ocean to support 10 out of the 17 SDGs, in addition to the dedicated ocean goal. Progress towards achieving SDGs is underpinned by an understanding of marine and coastal ecosystems and the corresponding relationships with those who depend on them for their livelihoods and well-being. Ocean-based research is expensive and logistically difficult, and our knowledge of the marine environment is subject biases in data availability. A number of initiatives aim to address these challenges by producing robust, extensive and interoperable biodiversity observation networks to support policy-relevant ecological, socioeconomic and climatic datasets and indicator monitoring.

HEALTHYOCEANS SUPPORTARANGE OF SUSTAINABLEDEVELOPMENTGOALS

1. End poverty in all its forms everywhere

2. End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture 3. Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages 4. Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all 5. Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls

6. Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all

7. Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all

8. Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all 9. Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and foster innovation 10. Reduce inequality within and among countries

Supported by the ocean

11. Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable

12. Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns

13. Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts

14. Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development 15. Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss 16. Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels 17. Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global partnership for sustainable development

Source:UnitedNations,Sustainable Development,KnowledgePlatform.

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A better understanding of marine ecosystem services enables of informed policy choices for sustainable development. It is therefore critically important that assessments are undertaken in ways that support their integration into SDG policy-making. Their co-construction through a partnership between stakeholders, policy-makers, the public and technical experts is likely to support SDG delivery. 
 Development policy making capturing the benefits provided by a healthy ocean can build on existing global initiatives and experiences, as well as conventional national policy frameworks and planning processes. This will require a shift in paradigm: to one that recognises conservation as a contribution towards sustainable development, rather than an obstacle to it. The understanding of natural ecosystems as an asset brings with it the opportunity of protecting and investing into it. There is a growing recognition among world and local leaders that ecosystems are indeed our shared factory. Marine and coastal ecosystems are being counted on to produce many of the essential goods and services that help us achieve the SDGs. Only with reliable, objective and widely available data can we harness this powerful, sustainable and global natural factory to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals we have set for the people of this planet.

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Demi-UNEP/Still Pictures

Introduction

N A T U R A L C A P I T A L The coast is also a social home to millions of people who enjoy the ocean in their leisure time, a cultural home to those societies that have lived near the coast for centuries or millennia, and the spiritual home to many communities across the planet whose ancient myths and religions are deeply rooted in the oceans. components), human capital (including knowledge, experience and wisdom), and economic capital (including cash and economic assets). The ocean produces half the oxygen we breathe, and absorbs 30 per cent of the anthropogenic emissions of carbon dioxide and approximately 93 per cent of the added heat arising from human-driven changes to the atmosphere (IPCC, 2013). In 2013, the ocean provided us with 135 million tonnes of fish, seafood and aquatic plants for food and industrial application (FAO, 2015), and contributed 16 per cent of the global population’s animal protein intake (FAO, 2014). Marine fisheries alone supported an estimated 200 million full-time equivalent jobs (Teh and Sumaila, 2011) - about one in every fifteen people employed on the planet. Over half of nearly 5,000 patented genes of marine organisms have found applications in pharmacology and human health. (Arrieta et al., 2010).

This is a landmark year for sustainable development globally, with the adoption of a set of 17 United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) that aim to reconcile the needs of people, the planet, prosperity, peace and partnerships. Reflecting the development of the Green Economy approache and the Outcome Statement of the 2012 United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (‘Rio +20’), the SDGs focus more on the environment than the preceding set of Millennium Development Goals, with a greater emphasis on sustainable management and consumption of natural resources, as well as the conservation and protection of natural ecosystems. The critical role of the ocean in sustainable development has already been recognized through a dedicated goal - Goal 14: conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development. However, the role that a healthy ocean plays in sustainable development goes far beyond this goal alone. In fact, the ocean, together with the many ecosystems, habitats and species therein, underpins life on Earth in numerous and highly diverse ways. A great deal is now known about the importance of marine and coastal ecosystems for the well-being of people around the world (Barbier et al., 2011). Far less is known about: • who depends most on marine and coastal ecosystem services and where these communities are located; • how these ecosystems are changing over time; and • how the competing aspects of environmental degradation, including climate change, restoration and human dependence affect the well-being of people (Suich et al., 2015). Achieving sustainable development requires more than an awareness or a measurement of natural capital . We must take action to maintain and enhance the value of all four types of capital upon which people depend: natural capital (including of living and non-living components), social capital (including relationships, norms and institutional

H U M A N C A P I T A L The relationship between the four capitals T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e f o u r c a p i t a l s S O C I A L C A P I T A L

E C O N O M I C C A P I T A L

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Garth Cripps, Blue Ventures, 2015

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This myriad of ecosystems services, the benefits people obtain from ecosystems (MEA, 2005), provided by the ocean and their role in sustainable development is the focus of this publication. By examining which of the Sustainable Development Goals, specifically beyond Goal 14, are supported by healthy marine and coastal ecosystems, this report will help bridge the communities of conservation and development and raise the awareness among the public, political decision-makers, the private sector and donor community of the essential nature of conserving and restoring marine and coastal ecosystems. While ‘ecosystems services’ might be considered a new term, the concepts underpinning it, of the earth and ocean as a life- giver, is much older and deeply enshrined in our religions, ancient myths and traditional management approaches. This report, therefore, includes a chapter focusing on the many different ways the ocean, and its importance in all aspects of life, has been integrated into the cultural mindset for millennia. While not often found in scientific reports, we felt it was also important to document how society intuitively understands the importance of the ocean. This report explores the data needs for achieving the SDGs, examines ways of linking information about marine and coastal ecosystem services to decision- making and recommends policy actions that support the integration of ecosystem services into development planning and ocean policies. A number of individuals and organizations from both the conservation and development communities have been invited to provide their views on the role of healthy marine and coastal ecosystems for sustainable development. Their contributions can be found throughout the publication. By highlighting the interconnectedness of the ocean throughout many the SGDs, this report seeks to create a greater recognition of the importance of the oceans for sustainable development, and the very existence and well-being of mankind.

Garth Cripps, Blue Ventures, 2015

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Our closeness to the ocean

Atlantic Ocean

Pacific Ocean

Pacific Ocean

Indian Ocean

Percentage of population living within 100 km off the coast None 30 to 70%

Megacities (more than 10 million inhabitant)

Countries where freshwater and marine fish is more than 30% of protein consumption

Less than 30%

More than 70%

Source: Kawarazuka, The potential role of small fish species in improving micronutrient deficiencies in developing countries , 2011. UNEP, GEO Year Book , 2005. Wikipedia, 2015.

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The Ocean Economy and Sustainable Development

Pawan G. Patil, Senior Economist, World Bank Group Nowhere is the link between poverty and the environment more obvious than in the ocean. The ocean plays a vital role as the planet’s life-support system. It holds about 97 per cent of our water, it absorbs heat and carbon dioxide. It generates oxygen and shapes our weather patterns. However, the ocean is not a life-support system in the abstract sense. It feeds over a billion people and supports hundreds of millions with jobs and livelihoods, many of which are located in some of the poorest coastal areas and island nations. Over half of the world’s economy is produced within 100 kilometres of the ocean. This is exactly why the World Bank has engaged in the ocean agenda for many years now. If we care about ending extreme poverty by 2030, we cannot ignore the ocean. The ocean is fundamental to the economic well-being and future food security of a huge number of our client countries. The work we do on natural capital accounting shows the value of a healthy ocean to a country’s economic prosperity. Countries tell us they want our help to put in place the laws and institutions needed to better manage their ocean resources for sustainable economic growth. In a changing climate that is already displacing thousands, endangering millions and threatening the development gains that have been so hard won, this is increasingly important. To give the ocean a fighting chance of withstanding climate change, we have to tackle the other issues threatening its health in the meantime: overfishing, destructive and illegal fishing, marine pollution and the destruction of marine habitats like coral reefs, seagrasses, mangroves and salt marshes. The good news is that solutions exist for all these challenges. We can act to rebuild fish stocks, protect critical natural habitats and reduce pollution levels.

In fact, an integrated approach to all these threats is the best thing we can do for the health of the ocean while we transition away from carbon-based economies. As the World Bank Group, our portfolio of support to fisheries and ocean habitat conservation now runs to over USD 1 billion, and we are providing another USD 5 billion to support pollution reduction and water resource management in coastal areas. We have heard, however, while a good start, this is not enough. Through this work, we learned that change can happen andwhen it does, people benefit. There are many examples. We know that our work alone

isn’t enough. No one organization or country can do what is needed to turn around ocean health on their own. That is why we see partnership as so important. When the global community comes together to focus on real solutions, the opportunities that emerge are tremendous. The newly minted Sustainable Development Goals and particularly the

SDG on oceans is yet another opportunity to galvanize global support and work

in partnership to turn the tide on declining ocean health.

Nicole Glineur, Global Environment Facility Healthy oceans, which cover about 70 per cent of our planet, allowfor thedeliveryof servicesandgoodsand their sustainable use. It is crucial to protect marine ecosystems, to maintain the services and goods they deliver. It is also essential for people’s livelihood and health and the opportunities for future generations - to further ensure economic growth through sustainable use and trade. Fish provides the primary protein to about 1 billion people in developing countries. Jobs in artisanal and commercial fishing and tourism provide livelihoods for millionsof people in thosecountries. Artisanal fisheriesarealso a model of gender balance and empowerment, providing work for both men and women who cooperatively and respectively catch and market fish. Healthy mangroves are one of the most unique ecosystems on earth in that they thrive where no other trees can survive – the transition between the ocean and the land. Mangroves stabilize shores and trap sediments. They are a buffer zone protecting the coasts from the effects of severe weather; they provide shelter and food sources for aquatic and terrestrial organisms; and serve as carbon sinks. Developing countries contribute to the protection of the coastal and marine ecosystem and the services they generate via the Marine Portfolio of the Global Environment Facility (GEF) supporting 200 International Waters projects involving 180 collaborating countries, 20 Transboundary River Basins, 23 Large Marine Ecosystems (LMEs) representing 60% of developing countries LMEs, more than 250 Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) and Multifocal Programmes. All projects integrate socio- economic, gender and climate dimensions. For example, the recent Coastal Fisheries Initiative in West Africa, Eastern Indonesia and Latin America is designed to demonstrate holistic ecosystem-based management, to improve governance of coastal fisheries and to support human well-being and livelihoods by increasing the economic and social value generated by coastal fisheries.

The Sustainable Fisheries Management and Biodiversity Conservation in Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction program focuses on tuna, and deep sea and straddling stocks to ensure sustainable fisheries and the conservation of globally significant biodiversity ecosystems and species in oceans. The 14 Pacific Islands Ridge to Reef Program (PICS R2R) works across the Conventions of Biodiversity, Climate Change and Desertification, the Law of the Sea, and integrates the crucial Adaptation to Climate Change dimension to deliver multiple global environmental benefits. Each country is adopting specific aspects of R2R in line with national priorities and development needs while delivering global environment benefits. For example, the Cook Islands are focusing on MPA effectiveness; and Fiji is enhancing integrated management of a series of forested watersheds to protect land, water, forest and biodiversity resources, maintain carbon stocks and protect coastal mangrove and coral reef MPAs. The national demonstration projects are integrated through an International Waters Regional Ridge to Reef project. The GEF Coral Triangle Initiative supports sustainable management of natural resources; expansion of MPAs and Marine Managed Areas networks; development of adaptive management strategies in response to climate change impacts; and improves management of fisheries - all essential to ensure that an adequate supply of food exists to directly sustain more than 120 million people living along the coastlines. Small Islands Developing States (SIDS) and Least Developed Countries are particularly vulnerable to the effects of climate change and receive additional Adaptation to Climate Change grants to curtail disruption and strengthen the resilience of coastal ecosystems to climate change thereby maximizing the economic benefits from tourism and fisheries.

Garth Cripps, Blue Ventures, 2015

How Do Marine and Coastal Ecosystem Services Support the Sustainable Development Goals?

The ocean, marine and coastal ecosystems are vital to life on Earth, and thus achieving the Sustainable Development Goals without the services they provide is going to be significantly more challenging, if not impossible. Marine ecosystemservices include seafood, geneticmaterial, coastal protection, carbon sequestration, biodiversity, recreation and other cultural services. These services support many of

the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Although SDG 14 – conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development – focuses specifically on the marine environment, marine ecosystem services contribute directly to the achievement of many of the other SDGs. In this chapter, we examine how key SDGs are supported by marine ecosystem services.

Poverty Alleviation, Economic Growth and Reduced Inequality SDG1: End poverty in all its forms everywhere SDG2: End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture SDG8: Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all SDG10: Reduce inequality within and among countries Several of the SDGs are directed at improving human well- being by addressing major areas of deprivation and scarcity. Marine ecosystems play an important role in supporting a great variety of economic sectors that provide livelihoods and employment opportunities for the poor (SDG1 end poverty in all forms everywhere ). This support may be direct when industries interact with marine ecosystems (e.g. subsistence and commercial fishing, mariculture, tourism and recreation, shipping, transportation and associated industries, and renewable energy production), or indirect as marine ecosystem services move through a series of interlinked industries employing large numbers of people around the world (SDG8 promote full and productive

employment and decent work for all ). 1819 Livelihood and jobs that are supported by marine ecosystem services – many of which are subsistence or small-scale commercial activities – support billions of people in low-income countries around the world (WB 2012) (SDG10 reduce inequality within and among countries) . Fisheries Fisheries depend exclusively on marine ecosystem services through food provision as well as habitat and water purification functions. As well, these fisheries support around 260 million jobs worldwide, both directly in fishing, and indirectly through all the sectors in the production chain (SDG8 promote full and productive employment and decent work for all); (SDG10 reduce inequality within and among countries) . A significant proportion of these jobs are in small-scale fisheries in lower income countries, whereas higher income countries tend to have larger scale industrial fisheries (Teh and Sumaila 2011). Marine aquaculture is an increasingly important source of fish production and employment (SDG2 promote sustainable agriculture) . This includes both employment provided directly at the farm level as well as non-farm opportunities in supply, processing and marketing activities 20 . 18 According to the OHI, “Every US dollar of gross revenue from the [coastal/marine] fisheries sector supports nearly three US dollars within the world economy (OHI 2014). 2 As reported in the Ocean Health Index (OHI), in 2003, “the USD 84 billion of fish caught worldwide [globally] generated $235 billion in economic impact [globally]” (OHI 2014). Although this should not be interpreted as the value of the marine ecosystem service itself, it does indicate that marine ecosystems and their services have continuous impacts that are widely felt. 20 As reported in the Ocean Health Index (OHI), in 2003, “the USD 84 billion of fish caught worldwide [globally] generated $235 billion in economic impact [globally]” (OHI 2014). Although this should not be interpreted as the value of the marine ecosystem service itself, it does indicate that marine ecosystems and their services have continuous impacts that are widely felt.

16 .

17 .

Marine fisheries employment 2011, by region

Direct employement Indirect employement

EUROPEAN UNION 2 500 000 jobs

NORTH & CENTRAL AMERICA 5 400 000 jobs

ASIA 230 000 000 jobs

AFRICA 18 000 000 jobs

SOUTH AMERICA 5 600 000 jobs

OCEANIA 870 000 jobs

Source: Teh and Sumaila, Contribution of marine fisheries to worldwide employement , 2011 fish that can be used as raw material for high protein feed for livestock (FAO, 2014). In some countries, fish can be a high proportion of the total animal protein consumed, directly improving nutrition (SDG 2 achieve improved nutrition ) particularly where total protein consumption is low or in countries where fish is the only readily available source of protein. In 30 countries of the planet, fish constitutes more than one third of total animal protein consumption (Kawarazuka and Béné, 2011). Populations in developing countries tend to depend more than those in developed ones on fish as part of their daily diets. Fish often represents an affordable source of animal protein that may not only be cheaper than other animal proteins, but preferred and part of local and traditional recipes (FAO, 2014).

The combined employment in marine fisheries, aquaculture and related sectors supports a substantial percentage of the world’s population (i.e. ~ 16%). 21 Marine ecosystems also indirectly support sustainable agriculture by providing 21FAO (2012)estimated thepercentageof theworld’spopulationsupportedbyfisheriesandaquaculture without discriminating between inland, brackish, and marine production. This estimate assumed that for each person directly employed in fishing or aquaculture that 3-4 jobs were created further down the supply chain, that each employed person employed supports 3 dependents. The result was 10-12% of the world’s population in 2010 was supported by aquaculture and fisheries. The estimate shown here has used the same assumptions (i.e. each fisher/aquaculture producer supports 3 additional persons down the supply chain, and each person employed has 3 dependents). It also assumes that the number of primary jobs in marine (animal) aquaculture is directly proportional to the fraction of total production undertaken in marine and brackish waters in 2010 (i.e. ~40% (FAO 2012)). Using the Teh and Sumaila (2011) figures for primary and secondary employment in marine capture fisheries, and the FAO (2012) estimate for marine (animal) aquaculture production in 2010, assuming no difference in the supply chain or supported dependent numbers based on whether the primary sector job is full time or part time, and employing the other assumptions described here as needed, it is estimated (very approximately) that 1.1 billion people are supported by marine fisheries and brackish/marine aquaculture (animal) production. This is roughly 16% of the 2010 world population of 6.9 billion people (PRB 2010). This is considerably higher than the FAO (2012) estimate for total fishery and aquaculture production. It is also higher than the FAO (2009) estimate for the total number of people dependent on just marine fisheries (i.e. 520 million people). This is because the Teh and Sumaila (2011) employment estimates are significantly larger than the FAO estimates, and because of the assumption needed to isolate marine aquaculture employment from total aquaculture employment.

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Garth Cripps, Blue Ventures, 2015

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Plants In addition to fish, marine ecosystems provide harvestable plants (SDG2 ‘promote sustainable agriculture’). The production of seaweed (both for human consumption and as input to other sectors, e.g. as fertilizer for agriculture) has increased rapidly between 2002 and 2012, totalling more than 23 million tonnes of cultured seaweed (FAO, 2014). Approximately 9 million tonnes of this production was for human consumption and 14 million tonnes for industrial

Fish also contributes to a diversified and nutritious diet. It provides high-value protein and also represents an important source of essential micronutrients, minerals and fatty acids. While average per capita fish consumption may be low, even in small quantities fish can have a significant positive nutritional impact by providing essential amino acids (FAO, 2014).

20 .

purposes. Additionally, as of 2011 nearly 800,000 tonnes of wild seaweed was harvested annually in 28 countries around the world (Rebours et al, 2014). Tourism A wide range of economic sectors utilise marine ecosystem services, and some sectors, such as tourism, depend partly on marine environments and their services such aswater purification, and partly on other infrastructure (SDG8 promote full and productive employment and decent work for all ) ; (SDG10 reduce inequality within and among countries ). Tourism, a growing sector in many economies, that is often concentrated in coastal environments. More than 100 countries and territories benefit from tourism specifically associated with coral reefs. In 23 of these, reef related tourism accounts for more than 15 per cent of gross domestic product (GDP) (Burke et al., 2011). Annually, more than 120 million people pursue recreational marine fishing, whale watching and/or diving. Pursuit of just these three activities in 2003 was estimated to support nearly 1 million jobs and resulted in nearly USD 50 billion (2003 USD) in spending (Cisneros-Montemayor and Sumaila, 2010). Waste Some economic sectors, such as mining and sanitation, utilise marine ecosystem services indirectly (e.g. waste treatment) in order to reduce their operational costs (SDG8, SDG10). The ocean absorbs a significant amount of anthropogenic waste. In a year, it absorbs as much as 400 million tonnes of dredge waste, 7 million tonnes of mine tailings, and 100,000 tonnes of fish waste (MKC, 2012). A proportion of these wastes is bio-remediated (broken down into less hazardous substances) by the oceans.

Garth Cripps, Blue Ventures, 2015

21 .

Healthy Lives, Human Well-being and Sustainable Industrialization SDG3: Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages SDG9: Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and foster innovation As discussed above, marine and coastal ecosystems help ensuring healthy lives by providing high-value protein and essential micronutrients, minerals and fatty acids to people’s diets, often at very significant levels. Recreation and Relaxation Marine and coastal habitats also promote well-being (SDG3 Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages) through opportunities for recreation and relaxation distinct to coastal and marine ecosystems. Recreation improves physical and mental health, and there is evidence that people who immerse themselves in natural areas enjoy a variety of psychological, emotional and mental health benefits, reduced stress and increased quality of life (UKNEA, 2011). Raw Materials and Future Innovation A range of natural marine compounds have been found to have important properties (e.g. anti-oxidant, anti-fungal, anti- viral, anti-biotic, anti-cancer, anti-degenerative) that may be useful in a wide number of medical and cosmetic applications (SDG9 promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and foster innovation ). Marine compounds are already used in the treatment of HIV, herpes, and cancer (Arico and Salpin 2005; Leary 2008; Lloyd-Evans 2005 a,b). Marine genes are used, among other applications, in the production of ethanol from corn (Vierros and Arico, 2011), in detergent, and in the tenderisation of meat (Arrieta et al 2010). The number of marine compounds and genes discovered is increasing extremely rapidly, as are their associated industries.

Marine genetic diversity and human health

20 000

6 000

Accumulated number of unique gene sequences of marine origin

natural products described

15 000

4 000

10 000

2 000

distinct sequences patented

5 000

0 60 %of patents Accumulated number of marine natural products 1980 1990 20 40

0

2000

2010

Year

0

Biofuel

Cosmetics

Environment

Food industry

Human health

Bioremediation

Biotechnologies

Genetic engineering

Molecular and cell biology

Agriculture and aquaculture

Source: Arrieta, Arnaud-Haond & Duarte, What lies underneath: Conserving the oceans’ genetic resources , 2010

22 .

Gender Equality & Peaceful and Inclusive Societies SDG5: Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls SDG16: Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels Women and Girls Around the world, the role of women and men differ with respect to the marine environment, especially in lower income countries. And yet, there are many places worldwide where a healthy marine ecosystem can provide opportunities for women and girls (SDG5 achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls ).

About half of all those employed in fisheries are women. They work primarily in post-harvest activities such as fish marketing and processing and a range of auxiliary activities but can also have a critical role as financiers and providers of working capital for the fishing trips. Poor families can benefit substantially as women’s engagement in subsistence fishing can bring vital protein and other nutrients. Small-scale aquaculture can also be an important activity for rural women in developing countries as it often takes place close to the home and can be integrated with other food production and household activities (UNEP et al., 2012). Social Cohesion Marine ecosystem services of all types can also contribute to the development of peaceful and inclusive societies by fostering the creation of social institutions, trust and reciprocity between beneficiaries (SDG16 promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels ). Coastal communities that jointly manage their marine resources tend to benefit further from these social relationships. This is a two-way relationship, in which the availability of marine ecosystem services helps to develop social cohesion and the strength of social cohesion ensures the conservation and management of marine ecosystems. A recent study in Madagascar shows that traditional communities place a high value on the social institutions used for managing marine resources (Barnes-Mauthe et al., 2014).

Mutton Beef 1.9

7.6

Wild fi sh

9.0

Por k

6.8

6.2

13.4

15.8

World Animal Protein Production

13.6

9.0

0.2

1.7

F ar med fis h

Po ult ry

1.8

2011

1950

Source: Earth Policy Institute, Data Center, http://www.earth-policy.org/data_center/C24

13.4 Kilogrammespercapitaperyear

23 .

Safe Human Settlements, Coastal Protection and Combating Climate Change SDG9: Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and foster innovation SDG11: Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable SDG13: Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts

Coastal Protection Coastal ecosystems can provide protection against storm surges that threaten many low lying coastal cities (SDG9 build resilient infrastructure ); (SDG11 make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable ) . Currently around 1 billion people live within 20 metres of mean sea level (WOR, 2010) and the populations of coastal megacities are projected to continue to grow, particularly in Asia. Globally, population density in flood-prone coastal zones and megacities is expected to grow by 25 per cent by 2050 (Aerts et al., 2014). Combined with projected sea level rise and increasing frequency and severity of large-scale floods, this means that a growing proportion of the world’s population will be exposed to the impacts of flooding. Coastal ecosystems protect shorelines from erosion (Gedan et al., 2010), and can play an important and cost-effective role in

24 .

Such ecosystems can act in a similar manner to breakwaters or shallow coasts. In this way, coastal ecosystems play a role in reducing the impacts of climate change (SDG13 take urgent action tocombat climatechangeand its impacts ), particularly the increased frequency of storms and sea level rise. Importantly, recent studies have also found that salt marshes can adjust to sea-level rise and can reduce coastal erosion and increase accretion, depending on a range of site-specific variables, as a part of adaptation to climate change (Fagherazzi et al., 2013; Shepard et al., 2011).

reducing vulnerability, possibly in hybrid solutions combining ‘grey’, engineered infrastructure with ‘green’ natural coastal protection (Spalding et al. 2013), and including key local stakeholders (Barbier, 2015). Coastal ecosystems can play a role in making cities and human settlements safe even in the case of coastal megacities. A recent study for New York City (Aerts et al., 2014) shows that wetland restoration and beach nourishment can be used in a hybrid approach to reducing vulnerability to flooding. In terms of providing protection from extreme events, coral reefs, seagrasses, mangroves and dunes, can also, in certain circumstances, provide protection against storm surges by forming barriers along coastlines.

Pacific Ocean

Atlantic Ocean

Pacific Ocean

Indian Ocean

Number of people who may receive risk reduction benefits from reefs by country 10 000 - 50 000 670 000 - 2 150 000 120 000 - 330 000

Source:Ferrario& etal , Theeffectivenessofcoral reefs for coastal hazard risk reduction and adaptation ,2013

330 000 - 670 000

Coral reefs

50 000 - 120 000

more than 2 150 000

Coastal communities across the globe are increasingly at risk from storms and flooding as a side effect of climate change paired with rapid human-led coastal development. Nature- based solutions like coral reefs offer a low-cost opportunity to reduce risk and also can be paired with other ecosystems services such as tourism and fish production. The map above shows the number of people by country that may derive a risk reduction benefit from reefs. The countries are grouped by the number of people living below 10m elevation and within 50 km of a coral reef to demonstrate the capacity for coral reefs to protect coastal communities.

25 .

Blue Carbon

Soil organic carbon

Seagrasses

Living biomass

Salt Marsh

Estuarine Mangroves

Oceanic Mangroves

Tropical forest

0

500

1 000

1 500

2 000

2 500

eq/ha

tCO

2

Source: Murray and et al , Green Payments for Blue Carbon Economic Incentives for Protecting Threatened Coastal Habitats , 2011

Climate Change The oceans play a pivotal role in the regulation of climate change through the absorption and storage of heat, the uptake and sequestration of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, the attenuation of storm surges, and the prevention of coastal erosion. Thus the oceans mitigate both the drivers and effects of climate change (SDG13 Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts ). The oceans absorb the vast majority of the heat trapped by atmospheric greenhouse gases (GHGs), that otherwise would have already warmed the atmosphere and fuelled the progression of climate change (GOC, 2014). Coastal ecosystems such as salt marshes, seagrass beds, and mangrove forests all contribute to the sequestration of carbon in marine sediments (i.e. ‘blue carbon’). Not only do these systems draw CO 2 out of the atmosphere, but they also trap carbon in detritus and sediment. Annual average carbon sequestration rates range from 4.4 ± 0.95 tonnes CO 2 -eq per hectare per year (for seagrass beds) to 8.0 ± 8.5 tonnes CO 2 -eq per hectare per year (for salt marshes) (Murray et al 2011). 22 0 500 1 000 tCO 2 eq/ha Seagrasses Salt Marsh Estuarine Mangroves Oceanic Mangroves Tropical forest

EUO © OCEANA Juan Cuetos

1 500

2 000

2 500

22 Estimated by converting grams of carbon sequestered to tonnes of CO 2 social cost of carbon (SCC) for the year 2015 as shown in table A1 from IAWG (2013).

-equivalent and using the

26 .

Sustainable Use of the Oceans SDG 14: Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development Marine and coastal ecosystem services provide a bounty of provisions for achieving SDGs, but there are sustainable limits. We must conserve and sustainably use our oceans (SDG14 conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development ). Marine ecosystems face a wide range of threats including land and marine based pollution, eutrophication, infrastructure development (leading to habitat loss and degradation), sedimentation, overfishing, hypoxia (de-oxygenation), invasive species, acidification and changes in temperature, currents and sea level (Brander, 2007; Turley et al., 2013; Noone et al. 2014). The population of phytoplankton has varied through time and space, and may now be declining noticeably in parts of the ocean (Boyce, 2010). Marine pollutants include agricultural fertilizers, untreated wastewater, toxins, litter and oil. These threats have a variety of negative impacts on marine ecosystems and their services.

Marine Protected Areas Marine protected areas (MPAs) have been advanced as potential means of conserving coastal and marine areas. An MPA is a clearly defined geographical space, recognised, dedicated and managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long-term conservation of nature and the associated ecosystem services and cultural values (IUCN-WCPA, 2008). When well designed and managed, MPAs allow for the protection and restoration of key habitats, the replenishment of fish stocks and an enhancement of the resilience of marine ecosystems. The expansion of MPA coverage is expected to enhance the provision of marine ecosystem services. A recent study estimates that the economic benefits of reaching 10 per cent coverage globally by 2020 are in the range of USD 622–923 billion for the period 2020–2050 (Brander et al., 2015). Currently, only 3.4 per cent of the global marine area is designated as an MPA, with 0.59 per cent established as no-take MPAs.

27 .