Outlook on Climate Change Adaptation in the Western Balkan Mountains

MOUNTAIN ADAPTATION OUTLOOK SERIES Outlook on climate change adaptation in the Western Balkan mountains

DISCLAIMER The development of this publication has been supported by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in the context of its inter-regional project “Climate change action in developing countries with fragile mountainous ecosystems from a sub-regional perspective” that is financially co-supported by the Government of Austria (Austrian Federal Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, Environment and Water Management).

Front cover photo: Durmitor National Park, Montenegro

A Centre Collaborating with UNEP

Production Team Björn Alfthan, GRID-Arendal

Elmedina Krilasevic, Environmental Innovations Association Sara Venturini, Environmental Innovations Association/Climalia Samir Bajrovic, Environmental Innovations Association Matthias Jurek, GRID-Arendal Tina Schoolmeester, GRID-Arendal Pier Carlo Sandei, UNEP Harald Egerer, UNEP Tiina Kurvits, GRID-Arendal Contributors Aida Brzina, Environmental Innovations Association Mersiha Susic, Environmental Innovations Association Maja Maretic-Tiro, Environmental Innovations Association Anela Rodic, Environmental Innovations Association Sonja Gebert, UNEP

This synthesis publication builds on main findings and results available through conducted projects, activities and based on information that is available such as respective national communications by countries to the UNFCCC and peer reviewed literature. It is based on review of existing literature and not based on new scientific results generated through the project. The contents of this publication do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of UNEP, contributory organizations or any governmental authority or institution with which authors or contributors are affiliated and neither do they imply any endorsement. While reasonable efforts have been made to ensure that the contents of this publication are factually correct and properly referenced, UNEP does not accept responsibility for the accuracy or completeness of the contents, and shall not be liable for any loss or damage that may be occasioned directly or indirectly through the use of, or reliance on, the contents of this publication. The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNEP concerning the legal status of any country, territory or city or its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Mention of a commercial company or product in this publication does not imply endorsement by UNEP. This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part and in any form for educational or non-profit services without special permission from the copyright holder, provided acknowledgement of the source is made. UNEP would appreciate receiving a copy of any publication that uses this publication as a source. We regret any errors or omissions that may unwittingly have been made.

Per Magnus Andresen, UNEP Ieva Rucevska, GRID-Arendal Clever Mafuta, GRID-Arendal Marie Halvorsen, GRID-Arendal Trine Kirkfeldt, GRID-Arendal Fethi Silajdzic, Expert Larisa Semernya, UNEP Amina Omicevic, UNEP Ana Vukoje, UNEP Filippo Montalbetti, UNEP

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ISBN: 978-82-7701-148-6

Recommended Citation Alfthan, B.; Krilasevic, E.; Venturini, S.; Bajrovic, S.; Jurek, M.; Schoolmeester, T., Sandei, P.C., Egerer, H, and Kurvits, T. 2015. Outlook on climate change adaptation in the Western Balkan mountains. United Nations Environment Programme, GRID- Arendal and Environmental Innovations Association. Vienna, Arendal and Sarajevo. www.grida.no

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Outlook on climate change adaptation in the Western Balkan mountains MOUNTAIN ADAPTATION OUTLOOK SERIES

5 6 8 11

Foreword Executive summary Recommendations Introduction

15

Climate change in the region and key risks for vulnerable sectors

16 18

Trends and scenarios Key risks for relevant sectors and ecosystems

43

Analysis of adaptation policies for vulnerable sectors

44 48 51 62 65 66

Policy responses at the Global, Regional and Sub-regional level National policy frameworks for adaptation Sectoral Strategies Institutional and stakeholder analysis Gender issues The role of indigenous communities

67

Gap analysis

68 86 87 88 89 90 91

Policy gaps to address climate risks Are policy responses forward-looking? Further policy gaps Information, data and institutional gaps

Acronyms Notes References

Lake Skadar, Montenegro

4

Foreword

experts, the reports offer concrete recommendations for adaptation. This includes sharing regional good practices with the potential for wider replication to improve cost efficiency and adaptation capacity. While each of the regions is covered in a dedicated report, they all face similar issues. On one hand, rising temperatures and changing precipitation patterns affect a range of mountain ecosystems, including forests, grasslands and lakes. On the other, drivers such as pollution from mining and unsustainable agriculture erode their ability to cope with these changes. The combined impact is increasing vulnerability among the local and downstream populations who depend on mountain ecosystems – especially when they are isolated from markets, services and decision-making institutions. This report explores the Western Balkans, which is a mountainous region stretching across Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, FYR Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia and Kosovo. 1 Climate change

is already having an impact on the region and the mountains are a hotspot for hazards like flooding from intense precipitation and accelerated snowmelt or the growing frequency and intensity of wildfires. These increase the risk to the economy and livelihoods, mortality and morbidity, public safety, ecosystem functions and species loss, as well as reducing energy security through water scarcity. The analysis concludes that a stronger policy focus is needed for the mountains of the Western Balkans to address key climate risks. The good news is that there aremultiple opportunities and relatively cost-efficient measures, such as ecosystem-based adaptation, that can be implemented, and the report includes a gap analysis highlighting specific areas where policy coverage or coordination can be improved. We hope that this report will serve as a practical companion for local, regional and national policy makers seeking to protect fragile mountain ecosystems and the people who depend on them.

Mountain ecosystems enrich the lives of over half of the world’s population as a source of water, energy, agriculture and other essential goods and services. Unfortunately, while the impact of climate change is accentuated at high altitude, such regions are often on the edge of decision-making, partly due to their isolation, inaccessibility and relative poverty. That is why The United Nations Environment Programme and GRID-Arendal have partnered on a series of outlook reports about the need for urgent action to protect mountain ecosystems and to mitigate human risk from extreme events. Covering theWestern Balkans, Southern Caucasus, Central Asia, (tropical) Andes and Eastern Africa, the reports assess the effectiveness of existing adaptation policy measures and the extent to which they apply to mountain landscapes, going on to identify critical gaps that must be addressed to meet current and future risks from climate change. The result of a broad assessment process involving national governments and regional and international

Achim Steiner UNEP Executive Director and Under-Secretary- General of the United Nations

H.E. Andrä Rupprechter Austrian Federal Minister of Agriculture, Forestry, Environment and Water Management

5

Executive summary

extreme heat events and wildfires across the region are some recent examples. In the absence of adequate adaptation measures, key risks for the region arising from these hazards include economic and livelihood losses, increased mortality and morbidity, decreased public safety, impaired ecosystem functioning and the loss of species, and decreased energy security through water scarcity. At present, relatively few sectoral policies or strategies adequately integrate goals and measures related to climate change adaptation, despite these sectors being highly exposed to and vulnerable to climate change. Furthermore, mountainous areas are rarely taken into account. Many of the key risks arising from climate hazards in mountainous regions identified in this assessment cut across several sectors. This assessment has analysed these existing sectoral policies to the extent to which can they address the most pressing climate change- related risks, and whether they generate positive effects for the socio-economic system and local communities. Gaps exist for most of the key climate risks identified. The most common gaps include inadequate policy coverage at different scales (e.g. regional, national and local); a lack of institutional coordination (including mechanisms) across sectors; a lack of or limited vertical integration from the EU to local administrations; and limited or low financial capacities to finance adaptation measures. In some cases, no policies exist to address existing or future risks.

The Western Balkans is a mountainous region and a hotspot of climate change. Over the past decades, warming has accelerated, and throughout the 21st century it is projected to be higher than the world average. The observed changes in precipitation over the past few decades are less clear, but almost all climate models agree the countries within the region will experience a significant decrease in precipitation within the 21st century, accompanied by an increase in drought conditions and therefore water availability. Annual flow reductions in the regions’ rivers of up to 15% are projected for 2°C warming above pre- industrial levels, and by up to 45 per cent in a 4°C world. Overall, climatic extremes are projected to become more common, including a significant increase in the number of extreme heat events. Heavier precipitation events are expected in the winter months, whilst summers are projected to become even drier. Many of the impacts will be manifested in the mountain regions and their downstream areas. Mountain-specific climate hazards include reduced snow cover (up to 50 days less by 2050 across the Dinaric Arc); increasing occurrence of winter and spring flooding from intense precipitation and accelerated snowmelt; increases in the frequency and intensity of wildfires; heavy snow precipitation and cold extremes; the appearance of new disease vectors; and decreasing annual river discharge and low flow periods. Many of these impacts are not only a future issue, but also a present-day concern. The catastrophic flooding in Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina in 2014, and regularly occurring

Wildfire on the outskirts of Dubrovnik, Croatia

6

In many cases, policies are better suited to existing (or static) conditions rather than preparing for future changes. Although the situation varies greatly between countries, some sectors represent positive exceptions with policies that contain forward-looking elements for adaptation. Policies pertaining to water and flood management, forests and biodiversity, and energy appear to be the most effective in this regard. Several good examples of adaptation in action exist within the region that can be replicated, including trans boundary flood and water management, urban adaptation initiatives, early drought monitoring, and heat wave early warning systems. The countries of Western Balkans need to improve their existing policy frameworks in order to address current and future adaptation needs, given the existing and future vulnerability of the region to climate change. Besides the fact that EU standards are a requirement in some cases, the EU integration process presents an opportunity, as well as sources of good examples, to further improve and harmonize the policies towards adaptation goals. One good example is the EU Floods Directive, which takes into account future climate impacts and provisions for regular methodological updates and revisions according to the latest scientific information on climate change. The EU Water Framework Directive is another example, which supports an integrated approach to water and drought risk management. At the same time, a strongermountain focus is needed for adaptation policies, as most existing policies in the

Western Balkan countries fail to address mountain issues specifically, with only a few exceptions (e.g. winter tourism). Essential to this task is the design, collection and monitoring of mountain-specific data on climate change trends and risks. Sub-regional coordination and transnational synergies should be strongly promoted, with a specific focus on mountain environments. Processes such as the Dinaric Arc Initiative could be strengthened and built upon. Policy-makers should consider a sub- regional approach to investments (including climate- proof measures) in prevention and preparedness in various sectors to avoid duplications and improve coordination. Sub-regional adaptation strategies and plans would thus further ensure sustainability at national level.

7

Recommendations

In complying with UNFCCC obligations and reporting requirements, the countries of the Western Balkans have already demonstrated an increased knowledge and awareness of, and action on, climate change risks and adaptation. Nevertheless, enhanced action towards climate change and adaptation in mountain regions remains crucial, both at the policy and technical levels. 1) Promote the design, collection and monitoring of mountain-specific data on climate change trends/risks. There is currently insufficient access to relevant disaggregated climate/environmental data on mountains in the Western Balkans, although this is essential for informed decision-making and the development of appropriate policies and actions. Specific actions could include developing dedicated national and regional data monitoring programmes for climate change risks and adaptation in mountains. 2) Give a stronger mountain focus to adaptation policies. Most existing policies in the Western Balkans fail to address mountain issues specifically, with only a few exceptions (e.g. winter tourism). Specific actions that could be taken include (i) acknowledging the important contribution of mountain ecosystems’

goods and services to the sustainable development of the Western Balkans (e.g. through tourism, energy provision and water security); (ii) increasing awareness of the socioeconomic and environmental impacts that climate change and natural disasters have on human well-being, both in mountain and downstream environments (e.g. flooding) and (iii) developing adaptation actions with a stronger mountain focus. These actions should be built on a solid foundation of accessible data for informed decision-making. 3) Improve policy evaluation. Expected outcomes from policy focus areas – defined using quantitative indicators – should be agreed upon, which would allow progress to be monitored against the objectives and improve policy performance evaluation. Where appropriate, priority should be given to the implementation of existing laws and policies, rather than to the development of new legislation. 4) Implement no-regret measures and avoid maladaptation from the outset. For action towards a more resilient West Balkan region, it is imperative that policymakers adopt an approach that avoids maladaptation and embraces no-regret measures, especially in the case of limited budget and capacities. No-regret measures imply,

among other things, relatively inexpensive actions such as awareness-raising of climate change among local communities and stakeholders in charge of the most pressing policies such as disaster risk management/reduction, as well as the adoption of innovative means, such as insurance schemes and financial tools. This also includes capacity-building measures. 5) Promote ecosystem-based approaches to adaptation in mountains. Resilient ecosystems can help curb the impacts of climate change and natural hazards. Ecosystem- based adaptation (EbA) encompasses a range of low-cost options which promote the sustainable use of natural resources while planning for and adapting to changing climate conditions, which can benefit communities in mountainous and downstream areas. 6) Support the development of sustainable solutions and practices in the fields of water, tourism, renewable energy and energy efficiency in mountain areas, which in turn will also provide benefits for climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction. The needs of men, women and specific vulnerable groups should be considered.

8

7) Further harmonize national legislation with relevant EU laws and policies. In view of progressive integration into the EU, national legislation should be further improved and harmonized with the relevant directives, such as the EU Floods Directive and the EU Water Framework Directive, that take into account future climate impacts and provide regular methodological updates and revisions according to the latest scientific information on climate change. 8) Increase regional coordination and cooperation on climate change adaptation. Subregional coordination and transnational synergies should be strongly promoted. Policymakers should consider a (sub)regional approach for investments in prevention and preparedness in various sectors to avoid duplications and improve coordination. Subregional adaptation strategies and plans would further ensure sustainability at the national level. The EU Stabilisation and Association Process and its Regional Environmental Network for Accession could become the organizing focus for a regional approach to adaptation. Any new scheme designed to coordinate and promote regional approaches on adaptation would do well to take into account the wide array of organizations, programmes, projects and activities already in place to move the Western Balkans towards a climate-proofed future.

9) The Alpine Convention and the Carpathian Convention can provide a source of inspiration and act as a potential model for regional cooperation and action on mountains in theWestern Balkan countries. UNEP could provide the forum to assist in the development of a (sub)regional approach to climate change and adaptation in the Western Balkan Mountains. A strengthened regional co-operative approach could provide a platform for the design and implementation of regional climate change adaptation strategies/action plans, prioritized action in targeted sectors, and exchange of knowledge and information (including local adaptation knowledge and guidelines), further contributing to the implementation of global Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs) and agreements including the UNFCCC, Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), as well as the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

9

TheWestern Balkans region

AUSTRIA

HUNGARY

SLOVENIA

Subotica

Tisza

Sesvete

Main peaks

ROMANIA

Danube

Zagreb

Drava

(more than 2 500 meters)

Kupa

Ski resorts

CROATIA

Osijek

Zrenjanin

Novi Sad

Rijeka

Dams

Slavonski Brod

Sava

Tamis

Protected areas

Pula

Pancevo

National Parks, Ramsar, Biosphere reserves, World Heritage Sites Nature, Natura 2000 (without purely marin areas), Nature Reserves and EMERALD sites and other protection categories

Bosna

Beograd

Una

Banja Luka

Sabac

BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA

Smederevo

50 km

Tuzla

Danube

SERBIA

Morava

Valjevo Drina

Main cities

Vrbas

Zenica

Zadar

Kragujevac

Capital cities

Cacak

Sarajevo

Uzice

Other cities (more than 50 000 inhabitants)

Kraljevo

Timok

Krusevac

Split

Nis

Bobotov kuk

Elevation

Novi Pazar

Neretva

3 000

meters

Leskovac

MONTENEGRO

Pristina

Nikšić

Vranje

2 000

Kosovo*

Zla Kolata

Zeta

Jezercë

Daravica

Gjilane

Podgorica

1 500

Rosit

Radohimës

3 000 meters 2 000 1 000

Prizren

Grykat e Hapëta

Kumanovo

Drin

Ljuboten

Zezë

1 000

Skopje

Shkodër

Tetovo

Vardar

500

Korab

500 200 0

Jakupica

200

Kicevo

Prilep

Durrës

100

FYR MACEDONIA

Tirana

Kaimakchalan

Pelister

Bitola

Elbasan

0

Fier

Korçë

Seman

GREECE

Vlorë

Gramos

Vjose

ALBANIA

Sources:UN,2015, “WorldUrbanizationProspects.The2014Revision”, UNDepartmentofSocialA airs-PopulationDivision; International Union forConservationofNature,2014, “WorldDatabaseonProtected Areas” (protectedplanet.net,accessOctober2015);nevasport.com (accessOctober2015);U.Schwarz,2015, “Hydropower Projects in ProtectedAreas in theBalkanRegion”,RiverWatchandEuronatur.

*This designation is without prejudice to positions on status, and is in line with UNSCR 1244/99 and the ICJ Opinion on the Kosovo declaration of independence.

1 000 km

Copyright© 2015GRID-Arendal Cartografare ilpresente/NievesLópez Izquierdo

10

Introduction

The Western Balkans is a designation used (most commonly by the European Union) for a region which includes Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, FYR Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia and Kosovo. 1 The region, considered mountainous in its own right, 2 includes the Dinaric Arc mountain range, which stretches across Albania, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, and Kosovo. 1 Mountains and the complex terrain of the region have contributed to shaping this region, forging strong local identities and, with external influences, producing a complex matrix of several languages, religions, and world views. The region retains some of Europe’s richest areas with regards to natural habitats, biological diversity, karst phenomena and lakes and rivers. With the exception of Albania, all the countries of the Western Balkans were formerly part of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, which dissolved in 1991. While the rest of emerging Europe transitioned peacefully out of communism and into democracy, many Western Balkans countries spent the 1990s engulfed in conflict following this disintegration, which caused widespread devastation, delayed the countries’ economic transformation and has resulted in markedly lower living standards compared with the EU countries. Yet in the 2000s, these countries all made impressive gains in rebuilding their war-torn economies and transitioning to market economies.

Today, the countries of the Western Balkans are at a turning point in the development of their economies, societies and environment. A number of social, economic and other drivers will shape the region’s future. Integration with the European Union and EU accession are the principal objectives for countries in the region (Croatia having joined in 2013), in the hope that they will bring security, stability and prosperity to the peoples of the region. Closer integration with the EU will strongly influence environmental and climate policies, laws and actions in the coming decades. The region as a whole faces similar environmental problems, which need to be tackled both within the countries themselves and across borders. There are legacy issues related to war, former industrial and mining sites, illegal dumping of waste, and the extraction of minerals. Improving air quality, the protection and use of water bodies, the conservation of biodiversity and the sustainable management of land, forest and water resources are all pressing priorities of the region. The shift from the industrial past to advanced, post-industrial economies is bringing about a shift in consumerism and challenging ecological sustainability. Climate change will bring additional challenges and pose additional risks to ecosystems and society. As a whole, the region is expected to become drier, with more heat extremes. This will coincide with extreme weather events such as heavy precipitation, resulting in flooding.

Velebit, Croatia

Kamberovica, Bosnia and Herzegovina

11

Socio-economic indicators

Millions of USD Gross Domestic Product

Human Development Index

GDP percentage by sector

INCOME

70 000

19 025

GNI per capita in PPP terms constant 2011 international dollars

Industry

Agriculture

Services

60 000

HEALTH

EDUCATION

Croatia

77.0

11.0

Life expectancy at birth

Meanyears of schooling (adults)

11 301

50 000

Serbia

74.1

9.5

40 000

30 000

9 431

20 000

Bosnia and Herzegovina

9 225

76.4

8.3

11 745

14 710

Albania

77.4

9.3

FYR Macedonia

10 000

75.2

8.2

No data for Kosovo*

Kosovo* Montenegro

74.8

10.5

0

2005

2010

2014

0

50

100%

0.700

0.716

0.731

0.745

0.789

0.812

0.732

European Union membership status Candidate country Potential candidate Member state Euro Zone

Millions Population

Distribution of population (%)

People per km 2 Population density

Urban

Rural

8

Serbia

7

6

500 km

5

Croatia

4

Bosnia and Herzegovina

3

Albania

FYR Macedonia Kosovo*

2

No data for Kosovo*

1

Montenegro

0

1970

1980 1990 2000

2010

2014 0

50

50

100

150

100%

Sources:TheWorldBankDatabank (databank.worldbank.org,accessOctober2015); UN,2015, “WorldUrbanizationProspects.The2014Revision”,UnitedNationsPopulation Division;UNDP,2014, “HumanDevelopmentReport”;europa.eu (accessOctober2015).

*This designation is without prejudice to positions on status, and is in line with UNSCR 1244/99 and the ICJ Opinion on the Kosovo declaration of independence.

Copyright© 2015GRID-Arendal • Cartografare ilpresente/NievesLópez Izquierdo

12

Albanian Alps seen from Shkodër

13

Globally, mountains are increasingly recognized for their vital importance in providing multiple services to both mountain and downstream communities: the same is true for the mountains of the Western Balkans. These services include that of “water towers”, supplying water (especially in summer) and for hydropower; as centres of both biological and cultural diversity; and as places for tourism and recreation. However, mountain geo- and ecosystems are also highly sensitive to environmental change, and extreme events can have major consequences for both mountain and downstream areas. In order for the mountains of the Western Balkans to continue providing essential services downstream, adaptation policies and actions are therefore needed that take into account or address mountain needs. Against this background, this Outlook has been prepared by several national and international experts from UNEP, its collaborating centre GRID-Arendal and the Environmental Innovations Association (EIA). This outlook synthesizes and analyses existing climate change adaptation responses in the mountainous regions of the Western Balkans and the extent to which they address key climate risks. In doing so, the authors and contributors have largely followed the definitions set out in the IPCC’s Fifth assessment report. The outlook has used three main steps: 1) the determination of the main climate hazards, vulnerabilities and key risks. Once identified, these key risks are considered as priorities to be addressed by adaptation policy; 2) the identification of existing measures (policies, strategies) for climate change adaptation, and 3) the analysis of the extent to which these existing measures can respond to the key risks (gap analysis). Several best practice case studies are also highlighted.

This synthesis publication has used as it sources of information: peer-reviewed journal articles, grey literature sources (e.g. those available from NGOs and international organizations); government reports including the National Communications submitted by countries to the UNFCCC); and extensive expert input through stakeholder consultation. Participants to the stakeholder consultation in Budva, Montenegro, July 2015: • Zdravko Kutle, Blidinje Nature Park, Bosnia and Herzegovina • Vlatko Trpeski, Ministry of Environment and Physical Planning, FYR Macedonia • MilenaSpicanovicBulatovic,MinistryofSustainable Development And Tourism, Montenegro • Olivera Kujundzic, Ministry of Sustainable Development and Tourism, Montenegro • Stana Bozovic, Ministry of Agriculture and Environmental Protection, Serbia • Jasmina Muric, Ministry of Agriculture and Environmental Protection, Serbia • Agim Qehaja, Ministry of Environment and Spatial Planning, Kosovo 1 • Qenan Maxhuni, Ministry of Environment and Spatial Planning, Kosovo 1

14

WESTERN BALKAN MOUNTAINS Climate change in the region and key risks for vulnerable sectors

Uvac river canyon, Serbia

15

Trends and scenarios

Trends in annual temperature 1960-2014

+0.5 ºC/decade

+0.4

Observed changes in climate Temperature

has warmed the most (Kostopoulou and Jones, 2005). One important effect of this trend is that the frequency and severity of temperature extremes has also increased across the region. In Albania, for example, the increase in the number of days over 40°C has been one of the clearest observed changes in recent decades. Heatwaves across the region are increasing in frequency and severity. Precipitation The observed changes in precipitation in the last fifty years are not as pervasive or clear as the observed warming. Generalizing about the observed climatic trends is difficult due to the complex topography of the mountains, especially as the Western Balkans has two climatic areas – the Mediterranean and the alpine/continental. However, overall the region has received a decreasing amount of precipitation, with Albania, Croatia and FYR Macedonia displaying the clearest downward trend. The mountain region of Gorski kotar in Croatia had the greatest decrease. Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro and Serbia experienced mixed or unchanging precipitation patterns. Droughts have become significantly more common in Serbia, FYR Macedonia and Kosovo. 1 Within the region, the Dinaric Alps generally receive the most precipitation (Lelieveld et al. , 2012). The mountains in the Western Balkans are therefore central to the flow of fresh water (Schneider et al. , 2013), as decreasing precipitation and increasing evapotranspiration are combining to make the region, and soils in general, drier.

+0.3

+0.2

Temperatures have risen in the region in the last fifty years, and every country in the region has experienced warming with this trend accelerating in the most recent decades (UNFCCC National Communications). Summer is the season which

+0.1

0.0

No data Outside coverage

Trends in annual precipitation

1960-2014

mm/decade + 35 Wetter

0

-35

-70

Drier

Sources:EEA,2015, “Trends inannual temperatureacrossEurope”; EEA,2014, “Trends inannualprecipitationacrossEurope”, (eea.europa.eu,access October2015). Copyright© 2015GRID-Arendal • Cartografare ilpresente/NievesLópez Izquierdo

500 km

Sunrise in the Dinaric Alps

16

Heavy precipitation change Projected changes from 1971-2000 to 2071-2100 Summer

25 % 15 35 45 5 -5 -15 -25

Predicted changes Temperature

human life. What are currently regarded as extremely hot summers will become the norm in 2100. By this time, the warmest summer on record from 2007 will become among the 5 per cent coldest (Lelieveld et al. , 2013). Days over 35°C are expected to increase by two weeks in the Balkan Mountains and one month in the region. The same model projects winter temperatures TheWesternBalkanswillwitnessasignificantdecrease in annual precipitation. However, projections for precipitation are not as clear or regular as predictions of temperature. The expected precipitation decrease is more pronounced in high emission scenarios than low-emission scenarios and is particularly strong in the summer (Önol and Semazzi, 2009). In winter, on the contrary, precipitation will increase in the mountains and the region in general (Kotlarski et al. , 2011; Lelieveld et al. , 2012). The annual number of rainy days could decrease by 10–20 days in a medium emission scenario by the end of the twenty-first century. No increase in extreme precipitation events are expected in the region (Kharin et al. , 2013); however, flooding is predicted to become more frequent due to more precipitation in winter causing spring floods (Islami et al. , 2009). to rise by 3°C. Precipitation

Predicting the climate in mountainous regions is particularly difficult due to the complex topography. Mountains create diverse microclimates, which require high density of measurement. The distinct local differences also require high-resolution climate models, which are scarce. The consensus among the existing models, however, predicts that the Western Balkans will experience substantial warming throughout the twenty-first century. This regional warming will be higher than the worldwide average (World Bank 2014). In Europe generally, warming is expected to increase with altitude (Kotlarski et al. , 2011), and some National Communications (including those of Serbia and Montenegro) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) also indicate that the highest warming will occur within the mountainous regions of these West Balkan countries. According to a regional model based on the medium emission scenario, the Eastern Mediterranean is expected to be 3.5–7°C warmer by the end of the twenty-first century, with the highest daytime increases found in the Balkans (Lelieveld et al. , 2012). Another model based on a high emission scenario predicts 5–8°C of warming in the Eastern Mediterranean in summer, again predicting the Western Balkans to receive the highest warming (Önol and Semazzi, 2009). Extremely warm days are particularly damaging to

Winter

25 % 15 35 45 5 -5 -15 -25

Source:EEA,2014, “Projectedchanges inheavyprecipitation inwinterandsummer”, (eea.europa.eu,accessOctober2015). Copyright©2015GRID-Arendal • Cartografare ilpresente/NievesLópez Izquierdo

500 km

17

Water Presently the Western Balkan countries are some of the most water-rich in Europe with regards to the amount of water available per person (10,600 cubic metres, which is twice the European average) (World Bank, 2003). Most of this water originates from the mountainous headwaters (García-Ruiz et al. , 2011), and several countries receive a significant share of their water from other countries through transboundary rivers. 3 Water resources have always played an important role in the economy of Western Balkans countries, and are exploited for irrigation, drinking water supply, industrial needs, livestock Key risks for relevant sectors and ecosystems production and tourism. Agriculture still plays an important role in the economies of the region and employment, despite its overall decline compared with industry and the services sector. 4 Almost 50 per cent of land in the region is used for agriculture: 19 per cent as pastures and 29 per cent for arable land and permanent crops. This sector is heavily water- dependent, where disruptions in the precipitation regime and a higher risk of drought and extreme weather have significant implications on the stability of the sector. Water resources are also used to generate electricity. On average, about 37 per cent all electricity generated comes from hydropower, although this is much higher in Albania (100 per

cent), Croatia (42 per cent) and Montenegro (45.3 per cent). Hydropower can be affected by accelerated evaporation and drought, and changes in the timing and volume of flow to storage systems. More frequent extreme events, such as flooding, may also threaten all types of energy infrastructure, with the associated increase of maintenance costs. The region faces a number of common water issues across all countries, including weak transboundary cooperation and pollution. Climate change poses additional challenges to water availability, quality and management. Following the breakup of former Yugoslavia, there are more than 13 internationally

Projected decline in days with snow cover for the 2050s

CROATIA

BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA

Days

SERBIA

-50

-40

MONTENEGRO Kosovo*

-30

-20

Baseline period 1971-2000. *This designation is without prejudice to positions on status, and is in linewithUNSCR1244/99 and the ICJOpinionon theKosovo declaration of independence.

FYR MACEDONIA

-10

ALBANIA

Source:C.Schneideretal.,2013, “Howwillclimatechange modify riverflow regimes inEurope?”, Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, n.17, pp.325-339.

100 km

Mavrovo ski centre, FYR Macedonia

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Water

Water uses Agricultural

Millions of m 3 per year Water withdrawal

Dams

Major Danube river sub-basins

Industrial

Tisza

Major Mediterranean sub-basins

Municipal

CROATIA

Danube

630

Drava

Rivers with projected reduced flow in the 2050s (reduction of at least 30% in one day minimun flow)

Kupa

Sava

Tamis

2014 flood most a ected zones

Una

SERBIA

4 121

50 km

Vrbas

Bosna

Drina

Morava

Timok

Cetina

No data available for industrial and municipal uses

BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA

330

Neretva

Water stress

MONTENEGRO

Ratio of total annual water withdrawals to total available annual renewable supply, accounting for upstream consumptive use. Higher values indicate more competition among users.

161

Zeta

Kosovo*

No data available for Kosovo*

Vardar

CROATIA

FYR MACEDONIA

SERBIA

BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA

1 028

10 % Low Low to medium

MONTENEGRO

20 %

Kosovo*

Medium to high

ALBANIA

Seman

High 40 % 80%

1 310

FYR MACEDONIA

*This designation is without prejudice to positions on status, and is in line with UNSCR 1244/99 and the ICJ Opinion on the Kosovo declaration of independence.

Extremely high

100 km

ALBANIA

Sources: InternationalCommission for the Protectionof theDanubeRiver (ICPDR),2009, “DanubeRiverBasinDistrict. Overview”;U.Schwarz, 2015, “Hydropower Projects in ProtectedAreas in theBalkanRegion”,RiverWatchandEuronatur;C.Schneideretal.,2013, “Howwillclimate changemodify riverflow regimes inEurope?”,HydrologyandEarthSystemSciences,n.17,pp.325-339;Reliefweb, “Balkans:Floods-May2014 ” (reliefweb.int,access October2015); Aquastat (fao.org,accessOctober2015);Aqueduct, “WaterRiskAtlas”,WorldResources Institute.

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Climate change will exacerbate already existing pressures on water resources and will pose significant risks to sectors where water is a limiting factor, including agriculture, industry and livelihoods. Almost all climate projections agree that the countries in the region will experience a significant decrease in precipitation in the twenty-first century, accompanied by an increase in drought conditions and therefore a decrease in water availability (Islami et al. , 2008; World Bank, 2014). For the region as a whole, annual run-off is expected to decrease by up to 15 per cent if warming is 2°C above pre-industrial levels, and by up to 45 per cent in a 4°C world (Schewe et al. , 2013). The seasonality of rainfall will also change. Longer low-flow periods in rivers and a significant reduction in low-flow magnitudes are expected during the summer season (Arnell and Gosling, 2013; Dakova, 2005; Dankers and Feyen, 2009; Schneider et al. , 2013), which will bring a number of problems. Higher temperatures will also shift the snowline upwards. By 2050, a reduction of up to 20 days in snow cover is expected across the Balkans and up to 50 days in the Dinaric Arc (Schneider et al. , 2013). More intense rainfall and increased snowmelt during the winter will increase the river flood risk in both winter and spring across the region (World Bank, 2014), but the time of greatest risk will change from spring to winter for snow-influenced rivers. Albania contains glaciers with a spatial area of less than 0.05 km², which are some of the lowest-altitude glaciers in the Northern Hemisphere. Although their ice has been steadily thinning and their glacier fronts have retreated, they have survived until now due to local influences in climate and topography, including avalanches and wind-drift snow and shading. In Montenegro, there are no glaciers; only

About half of the water that originates in the Western Balkan mountains flows into underground rivers and aquifers, with the other half draining into surface rivers. Groundwater found in aquifers is an extremely important source of water and is often cheaper to extract than surface water in the region (Stevanovic, 2008). Within the region, there are two types of aquifers – karstic, which are dominated by limestone and dolomites, and alluvial-sedimentary. The karstic aquifers are located along the Dinaric coast and within the mountains, while the alluvial aquifers are formed along the rivers. Fifty per cent of the total population of the Western Balkans are thought to depend on groundwater (World Bank, 2003), much of which comes from karstic aquifers. Several cities with over a million people, such as Skopje, Sarajevo and Podgorica, are almost entirely dependent on groundwater from karstic aquifers. Some of the Dinaric karstic groundwater of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Croatia, FYR Groundwaters and karstic aquifers: crucial but understudied water resources Macedonia and Albania meets 90 per cent of the total water demand (UNECE, 2007). Despite the importance of this resource, less information is available in terms of its quantity and quality compared with that of surface waters. Shallow aquifers are at high risk of pollution from point and non-point sources, which is a serious concern given its use as human drinking water.

pollution for both surface and groundwater sources, and wastewater treatment is often poor or non- existent. Although freshwater quality is high in mountain streams and in the upper reaches of rivers, wastewater from urban areas and industry has polluted the course of lower rivers, including the Sava River in Serbia and the Sitnica River in Kosovo 1 (EEA, 2010). In many areas of the Western Balkans, groundwater sources are at risk from contamination from agricultural run-off – the largest contributor of nitrogen pollution – and other sources (World Bank, 2003). Mining sites in the region have also contributed to water pollution through release of heavy metals and tailings. Many aquifer boundaries – which extend across national borders – have not been delineated, thereby posing additional challenges to transboundary cooperation.Groundwatermonitoringandassessment has been neglected during the past ten years and little is known at present about the availability of groundwater or its potential extraction capacity, even though these aquifers are themain sources of drinking and industrial water (World Bank, 2003). Moreover, few studies exist on the impact of climate change on karstic aquifers (Hartmann et al. , 2014).

shared river basins and four transboundary lakes. Most countries share one or more of these river basins, making this an important area for regional cooperation and effort. However, transboundary water cooperation remains generally weak, with low political prioritization, insufficient institutional capacity, weak information exchange and joint monitoring and, in some cases, conflicts constituting some of the main factors. Knowledge of transboundary groundwaters and aquifers remains crucially low, despite the importance of this resource (UNECE, 2011). Water quality is also a cause for serious concern. Discharge of wastewater is a major source of

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areas of permanent snow accumulation at Debeli Namet (Ministry of Sustainable Development and Tourism, 2015). However, predicted future warming (especially in the summer) alongside drier conditions might result in the disappearance of all glaciers within the coming decades (Grunewald &

Scheithauer, 2010). Land resources

The quality of soil and land has widespread implications not only for agriculture but also for the productive capacity of the land, and the risk of soil and land degradation is likely to increase with climate change. Increases in temperature, changing precipitation patterns, floods and droughts directly influence the properties and processes in soils, which can lead to accelerated erosion, land degradation and desertification (EEA, 2008). When droughts (which are forecast to increase significantly during the summer periods in the Balkans) are followed by periods of intense rain on steep, unstable terrain, the soil is not able to absorb rainfall, resulting in excessive run-off, landslides and floods. Wildfires and overexploitation of resources can further contribute to desertification. The Western Balkans is characterized by a mountainous landscape and abundant forest coverage; hence there are areas where desertification and land degradation is a concrete environmental issue. Degraded soils and land are unable to retain as much water, leading to increased flooding, and increased pollution and sedimentation in rivers and streams. The loss of topsoil is a global problem, which also affects the Western Balkan countries. In Albania, erosion affects about 25 per cent of the country, with the most critical areas being Shkodra, Tropoja, Saranda and Gjirokastra. In Croatia, about 90 per cent of the soil surface is exposed to

Satellite image of wildfires on the Balkan peninsula, 2007

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capacity available. This makes crops susceptible to rising temperatures, increasing evaporation and changing precipitation patterns. In particular, the increasing occurrence of droughts in the Balkans has been identified as a key risk for agricultural production (Giannakopoulos et al. , 2009; Gocic and Trajkovic, 2014; Kos et al. , 2013). The effects of climate change are already present in the agriculture sector in the Western Balkans. One regional analysis (REC, 2011) showed that extreme events and higher intra-annual variability of minimum temperature have led to a higher probability of crop failure from frost damage. Increases in the occurrence of hot days and declines in rainfall or irrigation have also resulted in reduced yields, while warmer winters can reduce the yields of stone fruits that require winter chilling. On the other hand, increased temperatures in spring and summer have been shown to accelerate crop development for short-cycle crops. Future projections of climate change and its impact on agriculture at the European level indicate that in southern areas, including the Balkans, there will be more losers than winners. Key risks include lower harvestable yields, higher yield variability, and reductions in area suitable for growing traditional crops (Olesen and Bindi, 2002). Climate change in the absence of adaptation measures will be largely detrimental to agricultural production, including for the most important agricultural products in terms of production area and economic output, cereals and fruits (predominantly grapes), of which Serbia is the biggest producer (Mizik, 2010; Volk, 2010). Significant declines in yield are predicted, according to the limited studies available. Projections for Albania indicate that the production of rain-fed grapes and olives will decline by about 20 per cent

if there is 1.8°C warming. In FYR Macedonia, yield declines of up to 50 per cent are expected for maize, wheat, vegetables and grapes at 1.62°C warming in the Mediterranean and continental areas (Sutton et al. , 2013). In Serbia, most yields are projected to decline for rain-fed crops for the period 2030 to 2060, compared with present day (Giannakopoulos et al. , 2009). However, negative impacts of climate change on yield could be reduced or even reversed if adaptation options were implemented, but these would require 40 per cent more water (Giannakopoulos et al. , 2009). Some alpine/mountainous regions, which are today characterized by lower average temperatures and shorter growing seasons than lowland areas, may benefit. For example, wheat yields in alpine areas are projected to increase considerably in Albania (by 24 per cent) and FYR Macedonia (50 per cent) due to rising temperatures and the extension of the growing season (Sutton et al. , 2013). On the other hand, pasture yields and grassland ecosystems for livestock grazing may be negatively affected by sustained drought and heat, and decline over large parts of the Western Balkans (World Bank, 2014). Overall, the livestock sector is currently under-represented in climate impact research for the region and few modelling studies exist (World Bank, 2014), although there is evidence that livestock in the region can be adversely affected by a greater heat stress (REC, 2011). Declining quantity and quality of feed could impact prices and lead to greater fluctuations (Miraglia et al. , 2009). People in the Western Balkans spend a relatively higher proportion of their income on food. Between 35 and 50 per cent of household expenditure is spent on food, drink and tobacco, compared with 16 per cent in the EU-27, making households more vulnerable to increasing food prices (Volk et al. , 2010).

water and wind erosion (UNEP/ENVSEC, 2012). In Serbia and Montenegro, the excessive cutting of trees in mountainous areas is among the causes of increased erosion and flooding (ENVSEC and UNEP, 2012). However, the quality of land has improved in certain areas. Parts of Montenegro have, rather than degrading, become steadily more resilient since the 1950s, due to a significant increase in vegetation across the country, leading to decreased run-off and better infiltration (Nyssen et al. , 2012). Food resources All countries in the region have extremely diverse natural potential for agricultural production, ranging from fertile plains and river valleys to the less productive karst, hilly and mountainous areas. Agriculture remains an important part of the economies of Western Balkan countries, despite the growth of industry and service sectors. It employs a large number of people, and occupies a large proportion of land in each country. On average, 11 per cent of gross domestic product (GDP) is generated by the agricultural sector in the region (the share of agriculture, forestry and fishing in national GDPs for 2012 ranged from 5 per cent in Croatia to 21.3 per cent in Albania; far above the EU-27 average of 1.7 per cent) (FAO, 2014). Eighteen per cent of the population (up to 41 per cent in Albania) are employed in agriculture (World Bank, 2012), which is often the economic and development engine for rural areas, where the proportion of people employed in agriculture is much higher than the national averages. Agriculture is also one of the sectors most vulnerable/ sensitive to changes in climate, because the growth cycles of animals and crops are closely bound to climate and weather conditions. Most crops within the region are rain-fed, with little irrigation or storage

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