Publication Name

THE HIMALAYAN CLIMATE AND WATER ATLAS IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON WATER RESOURCES IN FIVE OF ASIA’S MAJOR RIVER BASINS

THE HIMALAYAN CLIMATE AND WATER ATLAS IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON WATER RESOURCES IN FIVE OF ASIA’S MAJOR RIVER BASINS

This publication is available in electronic form at www.icimod.org/ himaldoc, www.grida.no/publications and http://www.cicero. uio.no/en. ICIMOD, GRID-Arendal and CICEROwould appreciate receiving a copy of any publication that uses this publication as a source. No part of this publication may be reproduced for resale or any commercial purpose without prior permission in writing from ICIMOD, GRID- Arendal and CICERO. Applications for such permission, with a statement of the purpose and extent of the reproduction, should be addressed jointly to grid@grida.no and hicap@icimod.org. This Atlas was developed as part of the Himalayan Climate Change Adaptation Programme (HICAP). HICAP is implemented jointly by the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), GRID-Arendal and the Centre for International Climate and Environmental Research-Oslo (CICERO), in collaboration with local partners, and is funded by the governments of Norway and Sweden. ICIMOD gratefully acknowledges the support of its core donors: the governments of Afghanistan, Australia, Austria, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar, Nepal, Norway, Pakistan, Switzerland and the United Kingdom. Disclaimer The views and interpretations in this publication are those of the author(s). They are not attributable to ICIMOD, GRID-Arendal and CICERO and do not imply the expression of any opinion concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area of authority, or concerning the delimitation of frontiers or boundaries, or the endorsement of any product. This Atlas is based on four years of scientific research by HICAP across the HKH region. Most of the work presented in this Atlas results from this research. Any other scientific data given in this book is referenced accordingly. Non-referenced data can be assumed to be derived from the HICAP studies results. Copyright © ICIMOD, GRID-Arendal, CICERO 2015

Editorial team Arun Bhakta Shrestha, ICIMOD Nand Kishor Agrawal, ICIMOD Björn Alfthan, GRID-Arendal Sagar Ratna Bajracharya, ICIMOD Judith Maréchal, ICIMOD Bob van Oort, CICERO Cartography Riccardo Pravettoni Gauri Shankar Dangol, ICIMOD Asha Kaji Thaku, ICIMOD

Layout GRID-Arendal

Anja Møller Rasmussen, ICIMOD Dharma Ratna Maharjan, ICIMOD

Contributors Walter Immerzeel, FutureWater/Utrecht University, Netherlands Arthur Lutz, FutureWater, the Netherlands Rupak Rajbhandari, Tribhuvan University, Nepal Tiina Kurvits, GRID-Arendal Tina Schoolmester, GRID-Arendal

Reviewers & advisors David Molden, ICIMOD Eklabya Sharma, ICIMOD

ISBN #: (printed) 978-92-9115-356-5 (electronic) 978-92-9115-357-2 LCCN #: 2015-306001

Asun Lera St Clair, Det Norske Veritas Germanischer Lloyd, Norway Rajiv Kumar Chaturvedi, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India Dhrupad Choudhury, ICIMOD Yannick Beaudoin, GRID-Arendal

Recommended citation: Shrestha, AB; Agrawal, NK; Alfthan, B; Bajracharya, SR; Maréchal, J; van Oort, B (eds) (2015) The Himalayan Climate and Water Atlas: Impact of climate change on water resources in five of Asia’s major river basins. ICIMOD, GRID-Arendal and CICERO

Copyeditor Susan Sellars-Shrestha

7 8 10 11 13 14 16 21 22 35 36 38 43 46 52 58 64 69 70 76 78 83 84 85 86 87 88 90 91 92 93

Foreword Key messages Policy recommendations

WATER AND CLIMATE IN THE HKH Introduction Himalayan Climate Change Adaptation Programme (HICAP) The Hindu Kush Himalayan region Sources of river water: Glacier melt, snow melt, rainfall, groundwater The importance of water in the HKH CLIMATE CHANGE AND ITS IMPACT ON WATER – PAST AND CURRENT TRENDS Climate trends across the HKH region Trends in glacial melt and implications across the HKH Trends in extreme events across the HKH Climate trends in the Brahmaputra river basin

Climate trends in the Ganges river basin Climate trends in the Indus river basin Climate trends in the Mekong and Salween river basins

CLIMATE CHANGE AND ITS IMPACT ON WATER – FUTURE PROJECTIONS Projected changes in temperature and precipitation Projected trends in glacial melt Changes in discharge for major rivers until 2050

MEETING FUTURE WATER CHALLENGES Finding future water solutions Themain water-related risks for Asia according to the IPCC Policy recommendations

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION HICAP’s approach to historical analysis and development of climate projections Glossary Acronyms Acknowledgements References

Preface

The Hindu Kush Himalayas (HKH) is a crucially important region for South Asia and China. These mountains are the ‘Water Towers of Asia’, providing water to 1.3 billion people. However, the warming trend in the HKH is higher than the global average – a cause for grave concern. There is no other place in the world where so many people are being affected by climate change so rapidly. The Government of Norway has long recognized the need to support and strengthen knowledge about climate change and its likely impacts in the region, as well as focusing on adaptation and transboundary cooperation. At the sixteenth Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in Cancun, Mexico in 2010, we announced multi- year support to the Himalayan Climate Change Adaptation Programme (HICAP). HICAP is an inter- disciplinary programme that seeks to understand

climate change and its impact on people in the region, and provide adaptation options and solutions to policy makers, practitioners and local communities. It is led by the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), GRID- Arendal, and the Centre for International Climate and Environmental Research-Oslo (CICERO). One of the main goals of HICAP has been to enhance regional knowledge and understanding of climate change and its impact on the region’s precious water resources – now and into the future. We are proud to see that new knowledge on this topic has been generated and visualized through this Himalayan Climate and Water Atlas, in which high quality scientific knowledge has been made available in simple graphics and language for policy makers and the general public. The findings presented in the Atlas provide the first comprehensive, regional understanding of

past climate trends, as well as possible future projections up until 2050. These will be invaluable in informing governments of the adaptation measures that need to be taken in the region to address new climate realities. Mountains and their importance as water towers for the world still remain under-represented in the global climate change agenda. We are confident that the Himalayan Climate and Water Atlas will help raise the visibility of mountains in the global climate change discourse.

Børge Brende Minister of Foreign Affairs, Norway

6

Foreword

Freshwater is the most important resource for mankind and is essential for human health, prosperity and security. In South Asia and China, about 1.5 billion people depend either directly or in- directly on water flowing down from the Hindu Kush Himalayas. Globally, water resources are facing increasing pressure from climate change and other global drivers. The extent to which changes in climate will affect these ‘Water Towers of Asia’ has been a question of key importance for scientists and governments in the region. Despite being one of the most populous, disaster-prone and vulnerable regions in the world, our knowledge of the region’s climate is limited and scattered. One of the main goals of the Himalayan Climate Change Adaptation Programme (HICAP) has been to increase our understanding of the region’s climate

and its impact on water resources, and make this knowledge relevant to local actors and decision makers for adaptation planning. This Atlas is an important part of this goal. Through the use of various maps and infographics, this Atlas describes recent changes in climate and hydrology and possible future impacts in five of the most important river basins of the Hindu-Kush Himalayas – the Indus, Brahmaputra, Ganges, Salween and Mekong. The findings underline that the region’s climate has been changing fast and will continue to do so in the future. Temperatures have risen faster than the global average, and further warming can be expected even under a low emissions scenario, especially at higher altitudes and during the winter season. Glaciers in the region will lose considerable mass in the 21st century. Precipitation across the region could change by up to 25%, increasing in some areas whilst decreasing in others. For middle hill and

mountain communities that lie far above streams and rivers, water availability may change drastically.

Although the total amount of water flowing within some of Asia’s biggest rivers such as the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Indus is not expected to decrease until 2050, we can expect higher variability and more floods and droughts. Extreme rainfall events are projected to become more intense, increasing the risk of catastrophic flooding events. We are entering a more uncertain water future, and the impacts of change depend on the vulnerability and measures taken to secure water availability for all. The research presented in this Atlas can help inform and prepare decision-makers and governments. Our key message is that governments and people within the region need to be flexible in order to deal with increased variability and to meet the challenges posed by either too little, or too much, water.

David Molden, ICIMOD

Kristin Halvorsen, CICERO

Peter Harris, GRID-Arendal

7

Key messages

Temperatures across the mountainous Hindu Kush Himalayan region will increase by about 1–2°C (in places by up to 4–5°C) by 2050. Studies conducted so far indicate that the mountainous Hindu Kush Himalayas (HKH) are warming significantly faster than the global average. By 2050, temperatures across the five basins studied are projected to increase by about 1–2°C on average, with winters seeing greater warming than summers in most places, and temperature extremes also becoming more frequent. Mountainous and high altitude areas are particularly affected, with warming reaching 4–5°C in some places, with some variation observed across the region.

Precipitation across the Hindu Kush Himalayan region will change by 5% on average and up to 25% by 2050. Precipitation is projected to change, but with no uniform trend across the region. Summer precipitation in the Ganges, upper Salween and upper Mekong basins is projected to increase, while the trends are mixed in the Brahmaputra and Indus basins. Although highly uncertain, increases of 5% on average across the HKH, and up to 25% in some areas, are projected. Winter precipitation is projected to increase in the Upper Salween and Mekong basins, while for the other three basins there will be mixed trends, with most areas receiving less precipitation. Extreme rainfall events are becoming less frequent, but more intense and are likely to keep increasing in intensity. Over the past decades, the amount of rainfall in the HKH has not shown a significant trend overall, although spatial and temporal variations have been observed. Increased monsoon precipitation is being observed over the high mountain belt of the Himalayas, particularly in the east, while the greatest decrease in monsoon rainfall has been observed in the south within the Ganges and Indus basins. There also appears to be a decreasing trend in the number of extreme rainfall events, although their intensity is increasing. More water is falling during each event. In the future, extremes in precipitation are likely to keep increasing in intensity (both negative and positive), exposing already-vulnerable populations to further risk of floods and droughts.

The monsoon is expected to become longer and more erratic.

Glaciers will continue to suffer substantial mass loss, the main loss being in the Indus basin.

Overall, precipitation in the HKH is likely to increase slightly in the 21st century with the monsoon season expected to lengthen, starting earlier and ending later, and with more erratic precipitation within the season posing more water resource challenges to communities and disaster riskmanagers.

Substantial glacial mass and area losses are projected in the coming decades for most parts of the HKH. 1 The highest relative loss is projected for glaciers within the Mekong river basin (–39 to –68%), and the lowest in the Indus river basin (–20 to –28%). 2 However, the highest quantity of ice will be lost from the Indus because of its large glaciated area. Warmer temperatures will also cause more precipitation to fall as rain than snow, resulting in melting ice not being replenished.

8

Through to 2050, no decreases in annual volumes of water are projected.

More floods and droughts are expected.

Despite overall greater river flow projected within the basins of the HKH, higher variability in river flows and more water in pre-monsoon months are expected, which will lead to a higher incidence of unexpected floods and droughts. This will greatly impact on the livelihood security and agriculture of river-dependent people.

Overall, runoff within the river basins will not decrease until at least 2050. An increase is even projected for the upper Ganges (1 to 27%), Brahmaputra (0 to 13%) and Mekong (2 to 20%) basins. Increasing precipitation is the main driver of this change, first combined with increased glacial melt, and eventually compensating for decreased contributions of glacial and snow melt. Runoff projections are mixed for the upper Indus (–5 to +12%) and upper Salween (–3 to +19%) basins. The projections also suggest that overall, significant seasonal shifts in flow will not occur by 2050. However, changes in spatial distribution may be significant, leading to high impacts in certain locations.

Changes in temperature and precipitation will have serious and far-reaching consequences for climate-dependent sectors, such as agriculture, water resources and health. Agriculture is by far the most important source of livelihood for rural communities, and is tightly linked to both the availability of water and temperature.

Communities living immediately downstream from glaciers are most vulnerable to glacial changes. Mountain people are particularly affected by changes in glaciers through reduced reliability of local water resources and increased occurrence of hazards including glacial lake outburst floods.

The contribution of various water sources to river flow will change.

In response to changing precipitation and temperature patterns, the relative contribution of different sources of water – glacial melt, snow melt, rainfall, and baseflow – to river flow will change, with consequences for water management practices.

9

Policy recommendations

2. Implement structural and non-structural measures to adequately prepare for and manage extreme events. While the number of extreme events is projected to decrease, the intensity of precipitation events is likely to increase and result in more severe damage to lives and property. Structural measures (such as flood prevention structures) and non- structural measures (such as the implementation and enforcement of building codes, land use planning laws or early-warning systems) are needed to reduce exposure, vulnerability and risks for populations, as well as to adequately manage disaster events if they occur. 5. Adopt a river basin approach to protect Himalayan ecosystems to harness the potential of water resources. Although the total amount of water resources in the HKH may stay roughly the same as present day, they will need to be managed more effectively as demand will undoubtedly increase in the future to meet increasing energy and water-intensive food production needs. Within the region, there exists a high dependency of downstream communities and countries on upstreamecosystem services, particularly for water in the dry-season, 3 and the benefits of sustainable watershedmanagement transcend national boundaries. At the same time, integrated planning and management between sectors, such as water, energy, land, forest, ecosystems and agriculture, is needed to enhance resource use efficiency and reduce environmental impacts.

3. Strengthen modelling approaches to further reduce uncertainty and undertake research to fill critical gaps. Climate models are not able to sufficiently capture the sharp horizontal and vertical gradients of biophysical processes in the region. Efforts to improve the models through increasing spatial resolution as well as incorporating more mountain-specific physical processes in the models are essential. Further research is required to understand the factors that impact on the functioning of springs (a major source of water in the mid-hills) and to implement measures to improve the functioning of springs.

1. Implement flexible and diverse solutions to address the high level of uncertainty.

Solutions and adaptation measures will have to take into account the overall expected changes as well as the spatial variations and uncertainties in changes. For example, farming systems urgently need restructuring towards higher flexibility so that they can withstand the increased flood risk, lower water availability and other impacts of climate change. As migration, mainly of men, is increasing, it is necessary to develop more gender-sensitive farming approaches while strengthening education and building effective networks for knowledge sharing.

4. Improve regional coordination and sharing of data.

6. Put mountains on the global climate change agenda.

Much of the uncertainties in the scientific results stem from the fact that climate monitoring in the HKH region is inadequate, particularly in high altitude areas. There is a strong need for a coordinated regional effort to improve hydrometeorological monitoring in the region and data sharing within institutions. Innovative ways of combining in- situ measurements, remote sensing based measurements and modelling approaches should be undertaken to fill the data gaps.

Globally, mountains provide 60–80% of the world’s fresh water. The HKH mountains, home to some of the largest rivers in the world, directly provide water and other services to over 1.3 billion people living within the region and downstream. While water is recognized as one the central issues in the global climate change discourse, the interlinkage between water and mountains is yet to be established as a global priority agenda. Therefore, putting mountains on the global agenda would be in the interest of not only mountain communities, but also the global community.

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WATER AND CLIMATE IN THE HKH

11

A L T A Y M O U N T A I N S

The Hindu Kush Himalayan region

T a r b a g a t a y R a n g e

H a n g a y n M o u n t a i n s

K A Z A K H S T E P P E

A l a t a w M o u n t a i n s

BETPAQDALA DESERT

Junggar Basin

B o r o h o r o M o u n t a i n s

QIZILQUM DESERT

MONGOLIAN PLATEAU

Karatau Range

T I A N S H A N

G O B I D E S E R T

C H I N A

TARIM BASIN

F e r g a n a V a l l e y

Q U I L I A N M O U N T A I N S H e x i C o r r i d o r

AMUDARYA

A l t u n M o u n t a i n s

TARIM

TAKLIMAKAN DESERT

GARAGUM DESERT

YELLOW RIVER

PAMIRS

Q a i d a m B a s i n

Westerlies

K U N L U N M O U N T A I N S

Loess Plateau

K A R A K O R A M

H I N D U K U S H

P a r o p a m i s u s R a n g e

Y a n g t z e

K ABUL

I SLAMABAD

Salt Range

Vale of Kashmir

A FGHANISTAN

P L A T E A U O F T I B E T

S u l a i m a n R a n g e

P AKISTAN

Siwalik Hills H I M A L A Y A S N EPAL

Margo Desert Rigestan

C H I N A

INDUS

YANGTSE

I n d u s

Central Bruhui Range

Tsangpo Gorge

N EW D ELHI

BRAHMAPUTRA

Dalou Mountains

K ATHMANDU

B HUTAN

THAR DESERT

C e n t r a l M a k r a n

B r a h m a p u t r a

Kirthar Range

G A N G E S P L A I N G a n g e s

N a g a H i l l s

Arvalli Range

GANGES

Khasi Hills

YUNGUI PLATEAU

Indus Delta

Elevation Metres

I r r a w a d d y

D HAKA

C h i n H i l l s

C h o t a N ä g p u r P l a t e a u

Ganges Delta Sundarbans

V i n d h y a R a n g e

0 1 000 3 000 6 000

S a t p u r a R a n g e

Kathiawar Peninsula

SHAN PLATEAU

B ANGLADESH

IRRAWADDY

MEKONG

I N D I A

N AYPYIDAW SALWEEN

Hindu Kush Himalayas Major river basin

EASTERN GHATS

Arakan Yoma

A N N A M I T E R A N G E

S a l w e e n

DECCAN PLATEAU

M YANMAR

V IENTIANE

W E S T E R N G H A T S

Khorat Plateau

I n d i a n m o n s o o n

INDOCHINA PENINSULA

M e k o n g

Irrawaddy Delta

Central Highlands

P HNOM P ENH

Myeik Arch.

Laccadive Islands

Andaman Islands

Mekong Delta

The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by ICIMOD, CICERO or GRID-Arendal.

12

Introduction

We need to understand the nature of the changes occurring in order to develop the tools to adapt to these changes. While many uncertainties remain regarding our understanding of the impacts of climate change on the water resources of the HKH, this Atlas and the research behind it enhances our understanding of both past, present and possible future changes to climate and water resources across this important region. This Atlas is based on data from five of the ten main river basins in the Hindu Kush Himalayan region: the Brahmaputra, Ganges, Indus, Mekong and Salween. The data and maps presenting historical analyses of climate trends at the regional and basin scales, as well as future projections of water availability, are the result of HICAP research. Further details on the methods and data sets used are included towards the end of this Atlas, under ‘Additional Information’ . The Atlas is primarily intended for policy makers, practitioners and implementers, scientists and the donor community working on water-related issues in the region. It is also relevant to the broader public within and beyond the region. ‘Key messages’ delivers the main scientific findings on climate change and its impact on water resources derived from this report. This is followed by ‘Policy recommendations’ , which presents a set of key policy recommendations, the implementation of which will allow governments and communities in the region to both prepare for, and adapt to, the changes to come. This Atlas is organized according to the following:

‘Water and climate in the HKH’ highlights the complexity of the HKH region from a physical and human perspective. It focuses on the sources of water, how water is used, why it is important, and what knowledge gaps remain. The Himalayan Climate Change Adaptation Programme (HICAP) – through which most of the new science illustrated in this Atlas has been generated – is introduced. ‘Climate change and its impact on water – past and current trends’ presents trends in temperature, precipitation, and the occurrence and duration of extreme events for recent timescales (last 50 years), starting at the regional (HKH-wide) level and then moving down to the individual river basin level. Trends in glacial melt and the influence of black carbon (soot) on glacial melt is also discussed. The implications of the above changes for human societies and ecosystems in the region are highlighted through stories and case studies ‘Climate change and its impact on water – future projections’ charts the future of water and climate in the region with the use of cutting edge scenarios and projections. Changes in temperature, precipitation, glacial melt, river discharge and the contribution of different water sources (glaciers, snow melt and rainfall) are presented up to the year 2050. In ‘Meeting future water challenges’ , the long- term implications of these changes are examined, including possible solutions to water challenges.

The Hindu Kush Himalayas (HKH) are the freshwater towers of South Asia and parts of Southeast Asia. Water originating from their snow, glaciers and rainfall feed the ten largest river systems in Asia. Together these rivers support the drinking water, irrigation, energy, industry and sanitation needs of 1.3 billion people living in the mountains and downstream. 4 This valuable resource is under increasing threat. Along with a rapidly increasing population which is placing greater demands on water resources, climate change is affecting water availability throughout the HKH and beyond. The Hindu Kush Himalayas are warming about three times faster than the global average. 5 Glacier behaviour across the region varies greatly, but most glaciers are retreating. 6 Many human activities, most notably agriculture, are timed with the seasonal flows of water and predictable cycles of rain. However, as the region warms, the hydrological (water) cycle becomes more unpredictable, at times with too much or too little water. The effects on people, communities and ecosystems can be devastating with the most visible impacts including catastrophic floods, landslides and droughts. Exacerbating the situation is the fact that this region contains some of the poorest populations in the world. Their ability to adapt to changes in climate and water availability is severely limited. Women, children and the elderly – already marginalized social groups – are particularly vulnerable.

Knowledge is an essential ingredient in building more resilient communities and populations.

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Himalayan Climate Change Adaptation Programme (HICAP)

To help meet the challenges emerging in the Hindu Kush Himalayan region, a pioneering programme was created to address critical knowledge gaps on water, climate and hydrology, and thus better understand the future impacts of climate change on natural

resources, ecosystem services and the communities depending on them. Since 2011, HICAP has been working in five major Himalayan river systems – the Brahmaputra, Indus, Ganges, Mekong and Salween – across six pilot sites.

Its interdisciplinary approach covers seven components: • Climate change scenarios • Water availability and demand scenarios • Ecosystem services • Food security • Vulnerability and adaptation • Gender and adaptation • Communications and outreach HICAP aims to enhance the resilience of mountain communities through improved understanding of vulnerabilities, opportunities and potentials for adaptation. The programme particularly focuses on women, who have strategic responsibilities in the region as stewards of natural and household resources, and who are also more vulnerable than men, as they face more social, economic and political barriers which limit their coping capacity. By making concrete and actionable proposals on strategies and policies (with particular reference to women and the poor) for uptake by stakeholders, including policy makers, HICAP aims at including enhanced adaptation at the highest levels of policy in a sustainable way. This Atlas is the outcome of new research on climate change and water hydrology in the HKH region undertaken through HICAP. It summarizes the latest science and lessons learnt, in order to enable policy makers, practitioners and implementers working on water-related issues in the region to prepare for the changes to come and develop appropriate policies to support people’s resilience.

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HICAP – Himalayan Climate Change Adaptation Programme

Backdrop

Sub-basin level

Historical trend analysis

Collection of data and information

Ensure that the design, development and delivery of knowledge and information from the project components are congruent and are addressing the different audiences’ needs

Dynamic downscaling

CLIMATE CHANGE SCENARIOS

Statistical/stochastic downscaling at strategic points

Integrate and use peer-reviewed international models

Scenario development and assessment

Collate data and information

Ensure that information and knowledge gathered or generated by a component are shared, aggregated and customized for different audiences Provide decision makers at different levels with relevant, state-of-the-art information, knowledge and tools that are strategic and policy-oriented

Develop methodology for water availability and demand analysis

HICAP

Downscale and customize climate scenarios for the region

Develop and validate models at pilot catchment scale and up-scale to sub-basin and larger scales

Share tailored information and knowledge to contribute effectively to policy processes

COMMUNICATION AND OUTREACH

Assess the impact (direct and indirect) in water-related sectors

WATER AVAILABILITY AND DEMAND SCENARIOS

HICAP

Identify and pilot gender profiles

Strengthen capacity and develop women’s leadership skills

Identify and assess drivers of change, trends and projected climate change impacts on ecosystems and ecosystem services

Enhance the resilience of mountain communities, particularly women, through improved understanding of vulnerabilities, opportunities, and potentials for adaptation

Analyse differences in adaptation between women and men, and strengthen women's capacity to adapt

Conduct case studies and action-oriented research

Quantify and valuate ecosystem services

Assess contributions of key drivers to land cover and land use dynamics and develop strategic management interventions for the sustainability of ecosystem services

Provide inputs into the development of strategic options and management interventions to enhance Link regional and local changes to recommenda- tions for adaptation strategies and methods

Carry out scoping studies, exploratory missions, stakeholder consultations, needs and gap

WOMEN AND GENDER IN ADAPTATION

assessments at different levels

Understand the root causes and socioeconomic dimensions of food insecurity and the impacts of climate change on households

Generate actionable knowledge to inform policies in support of community adaptation

the sustainability of ecosystem services

ECOSYSTEM SERVICES

FOOD SECURITY

Crosscutting components

Assess vulnerability and capacity across the region to establish a baseline Review current and future national adaptation strategies and their relevance to community level Assess and validate current and promising adaptation practices at the community level through action research and pilots

VULNERABILITY AND ADAPTATION

Analyse food security, livelihoods and vulnerability at the household, community and regional levels

Identify the biophysical and socioeconomic drivers/factors Document local coping and adaptation strategies

Conduct policy analysis and impact analysis of selected policy changes; disseminate information and policy relevant knowledge

Analyse policy and institutional options and innovations to reduce climate risks and uncertainties in food production and food security

Explore innovative options and opportunities for enhancing community resilience in food security

Local community level

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The Hindu Kush Himalayan region

Physical characteristics The vast Hindu Kush Himalayan region extends 3,500 km across eight countries – Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Nepal, Myanmar and Pakistan – covering an area of more than 4 million km 2 . As an area dominated by high mountains, vast glaciers, and large rivers, it has earned many names: As it contains all 14 of the world’s highest mountains, those reaching over 8,000 m in height, as well as most of the peaks over 7,000 m, it has been dubbed the ‘Roof of the World’. As the third most glaciated place on Earth after the Arctic and Antarctic, it is also known

however, also make the Hindu Kush Himalayas one of the most hazard-prone regions in the world. As the youngest mountain chain in the world, the HKH are also the most fragile. Heavy rains, steep slopes, weak geological formations, accelerated rates of erosion and high seismicity contribute to serious flooding and mass movements of rock and sediment affecting the lives and livelihoods of millions. The vulnerability of people living in the HKH to natural hazards is exacerbated by poverty and limited access to development services. The effect of disasters is, however, not limited to the mountains. Flooding affects many millions more downstream, sometimes with loss of life numbering in the thousands and costs to the economy in the hundreds of million. 8 Demographic and socioeconomic characteristics The population of the Hindu Kush Himalayan region is approximately 210 million. The communities are largely agrarian, relying heavily on local natural resources and subsistence farming on small plots of land. Like many agrarian mountain societies, they experience high levels of poverty making them vulnerable to both rapid environmental and socioeconomic changes. Already situated in one of the poorest regions of the world, poverty in the mountains is on average 5% more severe than the national average of the respective HKH countries, with 31% of the HKH population living below the official poverty line. 9 Only in India is the situation reversed, because of high levels of poverty in the plains of some of the north Indian states. Mountain communities are challenged by a fragile environment, depleted natural resource systems, limited availability of suitable agricultural land,

as the ‘Third Pole’. Finally, as the source of ten major river systems that provide water, ecosystem services and the basis of livelihoods to more than 210 million people upstream in the mountains and some 1.3 billion people downstream, the region is also referred to as the ‘Water Towers of Asia’. 7 The high mountain ranges strongly influence atmospheric circulation and meteorological patterns across the region. As a result of its varied topography, the HKH is endowed with rich biodiversity and diverse ecosystems, which provide a basis for the livelihoods of the many people who live there. Its physical characteristics,

16

Hindu Kush Himalayan region population and area

AFGHANISTAN

390

1 648

CHINA

17%

NEPAL

100%

147

60%

PAKISTAN

?

404

BHUTAN

100%

38

BANGLADESH

9%

51%

INDIA

13

MYANMAR

482

14%

317

47%

Population

Area

Country area in the HKH region (thousand square kilometres) 147

= 1 million people Country population outside HKH Country population inside HKH

Proportion of total area of each country falling in the HKH

People living under the poverty line inside HKH

47%

Source: Sharma, P; Pratap, T (1994) Population, poverty and development issues in the Hindu Kush Himalayas: Development of poor mountain areas . Kathmandu: ICIMOD; Gerlitz, J et al. (2014) Poverty and vulnerability assessment: A survey instrument for the Hindu Kush Himalayas . Kathmandu: ICIMOD; World Bank Open Data. http://data.world- bank.org/

17

precipitation. 16 Precipitation varies from 3,000 mm in the eastern Himalayas to 100 mm in the southern plain desert on the western side. 17,18 A large proportion of annual precipitation falls as snow, especially at the higher altitudes. The climate of the eastern Himalayas is characterized by the East- Asian and Indian monsoon systems and the bulk of precipitation falls between June and September as monsoon rain. The precipitation intensity shows a strong north-south gradient, as influenced by the mountains. In the Hindu Kush and Karakoram ranges in the west, precipitation patterns are characterized by westerly and south-westerly flows, resulting in a more equal distribution of precipitation throughout the year. In the Karakoram, up to two-thirds of the annual high-altitude precipitation occurs during the winter months. 19 Snow and ice are a dominant feature of the Hindu Kush Himalayan mountains. There are over 54,000 glaciers in the HKH region, covering a total area of more than 60,000 km 2 . Together the glaciers comprise over 6,000 km 3 of ice reserves, acting as fresh water reservoirs for the greater region. In the drier part of Asia, more than 10% of local river flows come from ice and snow melt. 20 While the Indus distinguishes itself by a much stronger dependence on glacier meltwater than the other four basins, the Brahmaputra, Ganges, Salween and Mekong are highly dependent on rainfall runoff. The monsoon is, thus, critically important for ecosystems and the local and downstream populations, who depend heavily on this water resource for their livelihoods and health. Overall, the contribution of glacial melt to river flow is highest towards the western side of the HKH and drops towards the eastern side where rainfall dominates.

physical inaccessibility and poor local infrastructure. The harsh climate, rough terrain, poor soil and short growing season in the mountains leads to low agricultural productivity, undernourishment and food insecurity. High rates of malnutrition are found in many parts of the HKH with nutritional security further threatened by poor diet, hard physical labour and poor sanitary conditions. 10 Poverty and food insecurity in the mountains are compounded by lack of access to safe water and adequate sanitation. In 2010, the United Nations General Assembly declared access to clean drinking water and sanitation a human right. As of 2012, however, most HKH countries remain behind, with less than half of their populations having access to improved sanitation facilities – despite progress on sanitation worldwide. 11 Likewise, in half of the HKH countries, at least 10% of the population does not have regular access to improved drinking water sources. 12 In the mountains, many households still use open pits as toilets and obtain their drinking water from open, untreated springs. Poverty has led to a major outward migration of people, mostly men, from rural areas of the HKH to seek employment in the cities and abroad. The HKH now has the highest rate of outmigration in the world, accounting for 15% of the world’s total peacetime migration. Migration is highly gendered in the HKH, with up to 40% of men absent from their communities. 13 As a result, it is women and the elderly who are left to look after the farms and families. Due to their increased work burden, women tend to have less time to take care of their children, who are often not breastfed long enough, leaving them unprotected against gastro-intestinal infections and exposed earlier to diseases from contaminated water and food. 14 The overall poverty and lack of development increases the vulnerability of mountain people to natural hazards such as floods and landslides. Because women often lack the capacity and

resources to fully participate in decision-making, they are left particularly vulnerable.

Downstream communities in South Asia are also highly dependent on upstream ecosystem services for dry-season water for irrigation and hydropower, drinking water, and soil fertility and nutrients. With limited land resources, inadequate energy supply and growing water stress, providing enough water and energy to grow enough food for the burgeoning

population is ever more challenging. 15 Hydrological characteristics

The rivers flowing from the Hindu Kush Himalayas provide the region with one of the most valuable resources: fresh water. Ten large Asian river systems originate in the HKH – the Amu Darya, Brahmaputra (Yarlungtsanpo), Ganges, Indus, Irrawaddy, Mekong (Lancang), Salween (Nu), Tarim (Dayan), Yangtse (Jinsha) and Yellow River (Huanghe). These ten river basins cover an area of 9 million km 2 , of which 2.8 million km 2 fall in the Hindu Kush Himalayan region. Downstream, millions of people depend on the waters from these rivers for domestic use, agriculture, hydropower and industry. The rivers are fed by rainfall, meltwater from snow and ice, and groundwater. The amount of water from each source varies by river. It also varies depending on the location within each basin. Precipitation falls as either snow or rain, depending on the temperature, which is closely linked to elevation. Snow can be stored as long-term (perennial) snow or become ice and contribute to the growth of glaciers. Snow can also be stored in the short term as seasonal snow before melting and turning into runoff. Precipitation falls as rain when temperatures are no longer low enough to form snow. Precipitation in the Hindu Kush Himalayas is dominated by the southwest monsoon in the summer and westerly disturbances in the winter. The pre- monsoon and monsoon account for 88% of annual

18

Hydrological charateristics of the HKH region Selected upper river basins of the HICAP study

BRAHMAPUTRA

GANGES

INDUS

62

MEKONG

233

154

125

110

112

62

407

0

10%

0

10%

125 94

151

SALWEEN

718

4

106

150

204

0

10%

= 10 mm Annual precipitation

0

10%

Annual runoff from each source Millimetres

40

106

Glacier melt

150

Baseflow

204

Snow melt

Rainfall runoff

0

10%

Glacierized area Percentage

0

10%

The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by ICIMOD, CICERO or GRID-Arendal.

Source: Lutz, AF; Immerzeel, WW (2013) Water availability analysis for the upper Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra, Salween and Mekong river basins . Report submitted to FutureWater; Lutz, AF et al. (2014) ‘ Consistent increase in High Asia’s runoff due to increasing glacier melt and precipitation.’ Nature Climate Change 4: 587–592

19

Contribution of snow and glacier melt to river flow Selected upper river basins of the HICAP study, average 1998–2007

Average contribution of snow melt

Upper Mekong

Upper Salween

Upper Indus

Average contribution of glacier melt

Upper Brahmaputra

Contribution to total flow Percentage

Upper Ganges

More than 80 70 to 80 60 to 70 50 to 60 40 to 50 30 to 40 20 to 30 10 to 20 Less than 10

Upper Mekong

Upper Salween

Upper Indus

Combined snow and glacier melt

Average discharge Cubic metres per second

Upper Brahmaputra

Less than 100 100 to 175 175 to 275 275 to 400 400 to 600 600 to 900 900 to 1 350 1 350 to 1 950 1 950 to 2 800 2 800 to 4 000 More than 4 000

Upper Ganges

Upper Mekong

Upper Salween

Upper Indus

Upper Brahmaputra

Upper Ganges

Source: Lutz, AF et al. (2014) 'Consistent increase in High Asia's runoff due to increasing glacier melt and precipitation.' Nature Climate Change 4: 587-592

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Sources of river water: Glacier melt, snow melt, rainfall, groundwater

Rivers originating in the HKH are among the most meltwater dependent in the world. 21 It has been known for quite some time that there is a large variation between rivers basins in terms of the relative contributions of glacial melt, snow melt and rainfall to river flow, although this has often been poorly quantified. As the science and availability of measurements has improved, the importance of glacial melt to total river flow has become better understood. 22,23 Estimates of the number of people who depend (either directly or indirectly) on meltwater from glaciers have also gradually been revised downwards from hundreds of millions (or even billions) to millions of people. 24 Generally speaking, the contribution of glacial melt to river flow is less important in river basins experiencing monsoon-dominated precipitation regimes and more important in the drier, westerly- dominated river basins such as the Indus. 25,26 Recent findings from HICAP research within upper river basins indicate that stream flow in the Indus river basin is dominated by glacial melt (up to 41%), while rainfall is of greater importance to the other four river basins. 27 Average runoff composition within each upper basin are: • Upper Indus: runoff is dominated by meltwater: glacial melt (41%) and snow melt (22%), and rainfall is of minor importance to total runoff (27%) • Upper Ganges: runoff is dominated by rainfall (66%) and meltwater contributes about 20% to total runoff • Upper Brahmaputra: runoff is dominated by rainfall (59%) and meltwater contributes about 25% to total runoff • Upper Salween: runoff is dominated by rainfall (42%), but snow melt is also important contributing 28%; glacier melt contributes about 8% to total runoff

• Upper Mekong: runoff is dominated by rainfall (44%), but snow melt is also important contributing about 33%; glacier melt contributes approximately 1% to total runoff In general, the relative contribution of different runoff sources can be explained by the weather systems and altitudinal effects. The climate in the eastern part of the Himalayas is driven by the East- Asian and Indian monsoon systems, where most precipitation falls between June and September. In the upper Ganges basin, despite the quite large glaciated area, rainfall runoff dominates due to the

monsoon rains. The situation is quite similar for the upper Brahmaputra basin. Because a greater proportion of the upper Brahmaputra’s basin’s area is at high altitude than in the upper Ganges basin, there is a larger contribution of snow and glacier melt. Although rainfall is dominant in the upper Salween and upper Mekong basins, there is a large contribution of snow melt in these areas, because large parts of these basins are located on the Tibetan plateau. The magnitude of the contribution of each component to total runoff partly determines the basin’s response to climate variability and change. 28

21

The importance of water in the HKH

Agriculture and food security for billions of people The economies of the HKH countries and the livelihoods of the majority of people within them are highly water dependent. Agriculture accounts for about 90% of all water withdrawals in HKH countries (higher than the world average of 70%). Although agriculture’s contribution to gross domestic product (GDP) is declining across South Asia and China, it remains an important component of the economies of HKH countries. Large proportions of the population are still based in rural areas and rely on agriculture, forestry, fisheries and livestock for their livelihoods. In Nepal,

The population of South Asia has tripled over the last 60 years and now accounts for around a quarter of the world’s population, with China alone accounting for around one-fifth. 29 An estimated 210 million people living within and 1.3 billion people living downstream of the Hindu Kush Himalayas rely on freshwater obtained directly or indirectly from the rivers and tributaries of the region. 30 There is an extremely high degree of dependence on these freshwater resources to sustain the livelihoods of rural communities and meet the food needs of urban populations. Water also supports navigation, energy production, and terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. At the same time, the region experiences the largest loss of life and damage in the world from water-related natural disasters.

agriculture contributes about one-third of GDP and employs two-thirds of the labour force. 31 In Pakistan, agriculture contributes about one-fifth of GDP and employs just under half of the population. 32 In China, over half of the land is used for agriculture, which contributes almost one-tenth of the country’s GDP. 33 The agricultural sectors in all HKH countries remain central to the development of their national economies. However, agriculture is also the sector most vulnerable to climate change, because it is highly susceptible to climate and weather, and also because people involved in agriculture tend to be poorer than urban populations.

The food, water and energy security of individual countries in the region depends heavily on the

22

Population in the river basins of the Hindu Kush Himalayas

Population density Inhabitants per square kilometre

400

300

200

Water stress Extreme High Medium Low

Total population by basin

100

= 10 million

TARIM

= 100 million

0

156

YELLOW RIVER

AMUDARYA

4 0 0

GANGES

YANGTSE

3 0 0

2 0 0

BRAHMAPUTRA

INDUS

1 0 0

2 0 0

1 0 0

1 0 0

1 0 0

IRRAWADY

SALWEEN

MEKONG

The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by ICIMOD, CICERO or GRID-Arendal.

Source: ICIMOD (2011) The changing Himalayas - Impact of climate change on water resources and livelihoods in the greater Himalayas. Kathmandu: ICIMOD; WRI (2014) World's 18 most water–stressed rivers .World Resources Institute

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