Mercury - Time to Act

Time to Act

MERCURY

TIME TO ACT

Copyright © United Nations Environment Programme, 2013

ISBN: 978-92-807-3310-5 Job Number: DTI/1623/GE

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MERCURY TIME TO ACT

Preface “It is imperative that we act now!” Background on Mercury Impacts on human health and ecosystems Emissions and releases

5 6

12 20 26 33 36 38 40 42

Mercury action Acting now … References Index The Global Mercury Partnership

Preface

amalgam fillings. Mercury as a compound is used in products such as batteries, paints, soaps and creams.

In addition, mercury releases from artisanal and small-scale gold mining and coal combustion are supplemented by ones from metal smelters, chlor-alkali manufacturing and vinyl chloride monomer (VCM) production just to mention a few. The world is acting: many mercury-containing products are al- ready being phased out, and processes using mercury are increas- ingly being converted to alternative technologies. A global, legally binding treaty translated into national laws and supported by creative financing, can accelerate and scale-up such responses and put the planet and its people on track to a more sustainable world. The World Health Organization has concluded there are no safe limits in respect to mercury and its organic compounds and the impacts of mercury on human health have been known for cen- turies if not millennia. In 2009, the Governing Council of UNEP governments showed leadership and commitment by agreeing to negotiate a global, legally-binding treaty currently approaching the final stages of negotiation for completion in 2013. This treaty would catalyze and drive concerted international ac- tion on an environmental and human health issue brought to international recognition as a result of the infamous Minamata poisoning of fish and people in the middle of the 20th century. I am sure this report and its straight forward presentation of the vital and fundamental facts can assist governments to conclude the negotiations successfully and adopt a treaty to begin lifting a health and environmental threat from the lives of tens of millions of people, not to mention the generations to come.

This report speaks directly to governments involved in the devel- opment of the global treaty on mercury. It presents updates from the UNEP Global Mercury Assessment 2013 in short and punchy facts and figures backed by compelling graphics, that provide governments and civil society with the rationale and the impera- tive to act on this notorious pollutant. The report underlines the fact that mercury remains a major glob- al, regional and national challenge in terms of threats to human health and the environment, especially but not uniquely to the health of pregnant woman and babies world-wide through the eating of contaminated fish for example or to marine mammals in places like the Arctic. It also underlines that the burden of disease in many ways is shift- ing towards developing countries such as those in areas of the world where a growing burning of coal is increasing emissions of mercury to the atmosphere. Small-scale gold mining is also aggravating the threat, in part fueled by increased extraction using mercury to meet rising de- mands as a result of a high global gold price. In the mid 2000’s that price was around $420 an ounce whereas today it stands at around $1,700 an ounce. The challenge towards addressing mercury emissions is the wide variety of sources of emissions, from industrial processes to prod- ucts in day-to-day use.

Achim Steiner UN Under-Secretary General and Executive Director of UNEP

Indeed often unknown to many, mercury is found in electrical switches and thermostats, lamps, measuring devices and dental

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MERCURY – TIME TO ACT

“It is imperative that we act now!”

Interviewwith Minister Fernando Lugris , Special Representative of theMinister of Foreign Affairs of Uruguay for Environmental Affairs, Chair of the Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee to develop a global legally binding instrument on mercury

ARTISANAL AND SMALL- SCALE GOLD MINING, LIGHT BULBS, AND PLASTICS The very good news is that all uses of mercury will con- tinue to decline. But there are exceptions, such as mercury use in artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM), in lighting manufacture and in the production of plastics that use vinyl chloride monomer (VCM). What can be done to reduce its use in these particular areas? – These three areas are notable as ones where challenges still exist in terms of the availability and accessibility to viable, cost-effective and efficient alternatives. ASGM is recognized as a major challenge – but not just in regard to mercury issues. There are a broad range of environmental and health chal- lenges posed by this activity, including the role of the sector in socio-economic development. While taking into account the impacts on national development and poverty reduction, we must move to set national goals and reduction targets, and take action to eliminate the activities identified as being responsible for the greatest emissions and releases of mer- cury. Other actions should work towards formalization of the sector, which is a largely unregulated and an often unknown sector of work. This includes labour laws, which may serve to protect workers.

MERCURY-FREE

We sometimes hear the term “mercury-free world” which seems a contradiction because mercury is an element. Thus, mercury always will be present. What can the inter- national community do about this? – It is true that mercury, as an element, will always be present in our environment. Nonetheless, it is a pollutant of concern so our main aim is to reduce, and where feasible eliminate, anthropogenic emissions and releases of mercury. Over time, this will decrease the environmental load, and reduce the amount of mercury which is re-emitted. – While there will be mercury in the environment, whether it is considered to be a supply will depend on whether there is a demand. If there are still essential uses which require mercury, there will need to be a source of mercury. The aim of the in- ternational community is to reduce uses as viable alternatives to mercury become available. Over time, this will reduce the demand for mercury, cutting the market and the interest in mercury supply. Yes, mercury will always be with us and there is significant supply in circulation today. Thus, rather than to con- tinue primary mining of mercury, we should be looking at the supply that is already in circulation for use until viable alterna- tives are found. The mercury that is obtained from decommis- sioned chlor-alkali plants and other processes or products as they are phased out and have no further use, should be moved immediately to environmentally sound disposal facilities.

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MERCURY – TIME TO ACT

“Our main aim is to reduce or eliminate anthropogenic emissions and releases of mercury.”

UNINTENDED EMISSIONS

About half of the global anthropogenic mercury emis- sions come from the burning of coal, metals production and the production of cement.What concretemechanisms exist to address this? – The control of mercury emissions from major sources has been one of the key areas of discussion in the intergovern- mental negotiations. Various mechanisms and approaches to reduce mercury emissions have been discussed and discus- sions continue on a variety of measures including the use of best available techniques and best environmental practices, the use of emission limit values, the establishment of national goals and the use of national implementation plans to set out action plans for managing emissions. It should also be recog- nized that many countries already have controls in place to reduce mercury emissions – either as stand-alone controls, or as part of a multipollutant strategy.

– In relation to the use of mercury in some compact fluores- cent lamps, at this stage, no affordable and available alterna- tive is currently available at the global level. Nonetheless, we need to be working to phase these out and push the market towards alternatives. In the interim, it should also be noted that, where power is generated by coal combustion, the provision of energy efficient lighting can result in significant reductions in the emissions of mercury through decreased power consumption, which may (even with mercury-contain- ing fluorescent lamps) result in a lower net mercury release or emission to the environment. The effects on the environment of mercury-containing products such as these lamps can also be minimized by the implementation of environmentally sound management of mercury-containing waste. Waste separation programmes and recycling activities are able to reduce the mercury made available to the environment from such products. – VCM using the mercury process is another where there is no commercially viable alternative at this point in time. The demand for polyvinyl chloride is very high in some countries, particularly where there are extensive building projects, and in some countries the viable sources of raw materials for VCM mean that mercury use is needed. Nonetheless, measures to minimize emissions and releases should be applied immedi- ately, as well as a plan for eventual phasing out as alternatives are found. It is my expectation that, over time, all of these uses will become increasingly limited, and eventually will cease.

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MERCURY – TIME TO ACT

CLEAN-UP OF CONTAMINATED SITES

HEALTH

The global burden of diseases attributed to exposure to hazardous chemicals is already significant and is likely to becomemore serious. Infants, children and pregnant wom- en are themost vulnerable to the health effects of mercury. What are the concrete measures to reduce health risks? – The global burden of disease related to mercury is well-recog- nized and is a major driving force for international action. Gov- ernments have recognized that mercury poses a global threat to human health and the environment. In considering this, it should be recognized that the greatest health risks from mer- cury arise from the consumption of fish with high levels of me- thyl mercury, particularly by members of vulnerable groups. The World Health Organization (WHO) has been closely involved in developingbackground informationutilized in the negotiations, and has come out with policy papers on issues such as health risks associated with the use of mercury in, for example, dental amalgam and vaccines. I rely on their expert input in this regard. – International action is directly addressing the major health concerns through the reduction of emissions and releases to the environment. This includes reduction from point sources, and overall reductions seen with the decreased use of mer- cury-containing products, decreased use of processes utiliz- ing mercury, sound waste management, and a structural approach to reducing the use of mercury in ASGM. These measures will reduce the mercury levels in fish as environ- mental levels go down. In some species of fish, this reduction may be seen quite quickly, while in other species, levels will decrease more slowly as a factor of their size, age and diet. However, much of the mercury emitted historically will con- tinue to impact the environment for years to come. It is thus imperative that we act now to reduce future emissions and releases to the maximum extent possible in order to stop add- ing more to the global environment.

Once emitted or released, mercury persists in the environ- ment where it circulates between air, water, sediments, soil and living creatures. It can travel long distances to areas far from any production or use, like the Arctic and Antarctic regions. Mercury levels are continuing to rise in some species in large areas of the Arctic, despite reduc- tions in emissions from human activities over the past 15–30 years in some parts of the world. High exposure to mercury is a serious risk to humans worldwide through the food chain. Solving these problems could be costly, particularly related to remediation. Will this get sufficient attention and money in the next 20 years to fix? – One of the key approaches to addressing the issue of con- taminated sites is to prevent their occurrence in the future. Many of the measures we are already putting in place and hope to increase, are working towards reducing emissions to air, water and land, by reducing the use of mercury in prod- ucts and processes, and ensuring the sound management of mercury-containing waste. These measures are designed to reduce contamination of the environment, and thus to also reduce re-emissions in the future. Reduction and eventual elimination of primary mercury mining will also avoid con- tamination from these sites. It is very challenging, at this stage, to predict what the global situation will be over the next 20 years, and to say whether there will be adequate funding to completely solve the burden of many years of industrialized activity. However, I can say with some confidence, that should we succeed in properly implementing many of the measures currently in place and under discussion, we will be reducing the future burden of mercury pollution as well as its associ- ated costs to humanity and the environment.

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MERCURY – TIME TO ACT

IN 25 YEARS

“I am confident that we will deliver measurable results for human health and the environment.”

Will you – let’s say 25 years fromnow – be able to look back and say ‘mission accomplished’ on mercury?

– I am confident that through international legal action and through partnering with stakeholders, we will be able to pro- duce significant decreases in environmental levels of mercury. Inmany ways, themercury instrument has a flying start as there has been a long period of voluntary activities delivered through the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Global Mercury Partnership, as well as actions taken domestically in a number of countries to address mercury pollution. Mercury is on the global radar andmany of the controls required areminor adjustments to controls already implemented to address other pollutants. Many mercury-containing products already have vi- able alternatives, and we are likely to see a dramatically shrink- ingmarket for more of themwithin the next 10 years. Of course, there are changes which will only occur over time. I am proud of the work and dedication of the international community and am confident that in the future we will deliver measurable re- sults for human health and the environment.

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MERCURY – TIME TO ACT

Global mercury events timeline

Numerous actions on mercury taken by industries, governments and individuals

EUmercuryexportban ineffect

EU mercury strategy launched

Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee (INC) commence its work, INC-1 Stockholm

World’s largest mercury mine in Spain (Almaden) stopped primary mercury production

Mass intoxication and poisoning by mercury and mercury-containing products in several countries

Support to various demonstration and capacity-building projects on mercury by the GEF

National regulatory frameworks on mercury

1960

1950

1970

1980

1990

2000

2010

2020

Diplomatic conference in Japan, signing of a Global MercuryTreaty INC-5 Geneva Entry into force (?)

Earth Summit, Rio-de-Janeiro. Establishment of the Global Environment Facility

Minamata Disease officially acknowledged

Arcticemission inventory andUNEP'sGlobalAtmospheric MercuryAssessmentpublished

North American Regional Action Plan (NARAP) on Mercury

UNEP's Global Mercury Assessment Report published

U.S.MercuryExportBanAct (effectivefromJanuary1,2013)

UNEPGoverningCouncil'sdecisionto elaboratea legallybinding instrument toreducerisksposedbymercury

INC-4 Punta del Este

INC-2Chibaand INC-3Nairobi

Source: Adapted from presentation by Fernando Lugris at UNEP Chemicals debriefing 26 July 2012 and 4 December 2012, Geneva. "Outcomes of the 4th session of the Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee to prepare a global legally binding instrument on mercury". Designed by Zoï Environment Network / GRID-Arendal, December 2012.

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MERCURY – TIME TO ACT

Minamata mercury events timeline

Acetaldehyde and acetic acid manufacturing industry takes the rst pollution reduction measures which later prove ine ective. The cause of Minamata Disease identi ed. Compensation issues start to be discussed.

Japan's Environment Agency established; Certi cation Criteria for Acquired Minamata Disease published.

Special Relief Act for Minamata victims.

Establishmentofvarious social-economic and victims integration programmes.

Installation of dividing nets to contain polluted sh inside Minamata Bay.

Relief Act to compensate Minamata disease victims.

1960

1950

1970

1980

1990

2000

2010

Establishment of Minamata Disease Museums in Minamata and Niigata.

A young girl at Minamata is hospitalised with syndrome of severe numbness of the limbs, inability to speak and inability to eat. Minamata Disease o cially acknowledged. Outbreak of the same disease in Niigata Prefecture.

Dredging of 1.5 million cubic metres of mercury-contaminated bottom sediments.

Government decision on revitalisation and development of local communities

Comprehensive Programme to Address MinamataDisease introduced.

Minamata city is selected for eco-model cities programme in Japan

Cost of damage caused by Minamata disease calculated: - 7,671,000,000 yen/year health damage compensations - 4,271,000,000 yen/year expenditure for dredging work in Minamata Bay - 689,000,000 yen/year shery compensations

Production of acetaldehyde stopped at Minamata.

Source: Adapted from The lessons from Minamata Disease and Mercury Management in Japan, Ministry of Environment Japan, 2011. → http://www.env.go.jp/en/chemi/mercury/experience_of_japan.pdf Designed by Zoï Environment Network / GRID-Arendal, December 2012.

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MERCURY – TIME TO ACT

Background on Mercury Mercury, also known as quicksilver, is a heavy, silvery-white metal which is liquid at room temperature and evaporates easily. In nature it is usually found in the form of cinnabar, used in the past as a red pigment. Cinnabar deposits have been mined for centuries to produce mercury, but cinnabar and other natural forms of mercury can also occur in deposits of other metals such as lead and zinc. They may also be found in small amounts in a wide range of rocks including coal and limestone. Mercury can be released into the air, water and soil through industrial processes including mining, metal and ce-

ment production, and through fuel extraction and the com- bustion of fossil fuels.

Mercury has been used since antiquity. Archaeologists have recovered traces from Mayan tombs and from the remains of Islamic Spain (Bank, 2012). The first emperor of unified China is said to have died after ingesting mercury pills intended to give him eternal life (Asia History website). Metallic mercury is still used in some herbal and religious remedies in Latin America, Asia and Caribbean rituals (ATSDR, 1999).

Global annual mercury mining production Hg in metric tonnes

10,000

8,000

6,000

Mercury is a heavy, silvery-white metal which is liquid at room

4,000

2,000

temperature and evaporates easily.

0

2011

1951

1961

1971

1981

1991

2001

Source: Adapted from USGS, Mercury Statistics and information, “Mineral Commodity Summaries”. Designed by Zoï Environment Network / GRID-Arendal, December 2012.

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MERCURY – TIME TO ACT

1969 100

40,000- 1,000,000

1956 100

1960 1,000

1971

53,612 Minamata: 1953 - 1960 Niigata: 1964 - 1965

1963-1965 45

144

2,000

1967

1998

27+ 1989 - ?

Global cases of mercury poisoning incidents

Nature of contamination

Contaminated flour Contaminated wheat seeds Contaminated grain

Affected people Fatalities No information or uncertainties

Illegal import of waste and inadequate storage

Contaminated seafood

?

Source:Adapted fromASmallDoseofToxicology,StevenGilbert,2011,Chapter9;Adapted fromMercuryRising,DanOlmsted,2007,UnitedPress International Inc. (>http://www2.citypaper.com/news/story.asp?id=13317);TheThreeModernFacesofMercury,ThomasClarkson, DepartmentofEnvironmentalMedicine,UniversityofRochesterSchoolofMedicine,Reviews,2002 (>http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1241144/pdf/ehp110s-000011.pdf);MethylmercuryPosioning in Iraq,Bakir,etal.,Science,Vol.20,1973,pp.230-241 (>http://www.sciencemag.org/content/181/4096/230.full.pdf); TheThreeModernFacesofMercury,ThomasClarkson,DepartmentofEnvironmentalMedicine,UniversityofRochesterSchoolofMedicine,Reviews,2002 (>http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11114126); MorphumEnvironment,Dr.RonMcDowall (>http://www.mcdowall.co.nz/ron/Site/Project_Gallery_-_Illegal_dumping_cambodia.html#0); BBC,1999 (>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/310362.stm);UniversityofMichigan (>UniversityofMichigan); The Independent,1994 (>http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/families-sue-over-mercury-poisoning-1403679.html);Lessons fromMinamataDiseaseandMercuryManagement in Japan,2011,Ministryof theEnvironment, Japan (>www.env.go.jp/chemi/tmms/pr-m/mat01/ en_full.pdf) DesignedbyZoïEnvironmentNetwork /GRID-Arendal,December2012

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MERCURY – TIME TO ACT

Mercury in food and products

Tile sh, Sword sh, Shark and King mackerel

Grouper, Tuna, Seabass, Marlin and Halibut

Thermometers

Cosmetics

Electronical devices (switches and thermostats)

Fluorescent lamps

Batteries

Sources: adapted from UNEP, Mercury Awareness Raising Package, accessed on line in September 2012 (http://www.unep.org/hazardoussubstances); US Food and Drug Administration website on Mercury Levels in Commercial Fish and Shell sh (1990-2010) (http://www.fda.gov/food/foodsafety/product-speci cinformation/seafood/foodbornepathogenscontaminants/methylmercury/ucm115644.htm) Designed by Zoï Environment Network / GRID-Arendal, December 2012

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MERCURY – TIME TO ACT

Most of the world’s estimated 600,000 tonnes of mercury deposits are found in a handful of countries.

Most of the world’s estimated 600,000 tonnes of mercury de- posits are found in a handful of countries, including China, Kyrgyzstan, Mexico, Peru, Russia, Slovenia, Spain and Ukraine (USGS, 2012). Primary mining (where mercury is the target ore, not extracted as a by-product) is now limited to even fewer countries, with only one (Kyrgyzstan) still exporting. In 2005, UNEP estimated global annual mercury demand at be- tween 3,000 and 3,900 tonnes (UNEP, 2006). Demand has fallen significantly in the last 50 years, from 9,000 tonnes a year in the 1960s to 7,000 in the 1980s and 4,000 a decade later (UNEP, 2006). A growing understanding of the risks posed by the toxicity of mer- cury, the increasing availability of substitutes and international ac- tion mean that many uses of mercury are now disappearing. Given present trends, it appears likely that most uses of mercury will continue to decline except in artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) and in the production of vinyl chloride mono- mer (VCM) which together accounts for around 45 per cent of all global demand.

Even now, mercury is commonplace in daily life. Electrical and electronic devices, switches (including thermostats) and relays, measuring and control equipment, energy- efficient fluorescent light bulbs, batteries, mascara, skin- lightening creams and other cosmetics which contain mercury, dental fillings and a host of other consumables are used across the globe. Food products obtained from fish, terrestrial mammals and other products such as rice can contain mercury. It is still widely used in health care equipment, where much of it is used for measuring, and in blood pressure devices and thermometers, although their use is declining. There are safe and cost-effective replacements for mercury for many health care applica- tions and for pharmaceuticals, and goals have been set to phase out some mercury-containing devices altogeth- er. For instance, the UNEP Mercury Products Partnership, a mechanism for delivery of immediate actions, has set the goal of reducing demand for mercury-containing fe- ver thermometers and blood pressure devices by at least 70 per cent by 2017.

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MERCURY – TIME TO ACT

Global mercury consumption in 2005

1,900 Mercury consumption (tonnes)

1,800

Dental amalgam

1,700

Measurement and control devices

1,600

Chlor-alkali industry

1,500

1,400

Fluorescent lighting

1,300

Artisanal and small-scale gold mining

1,200

Batteries

1,100

Electrical and electronic devices

1,000

Vinyl chloride monomer

900

Other

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0

East and Southeast Asia

South Asia

European Union (EU25)

CIS and other European countries

Middle Eastern States

North Africa

Sub- Saharan Africa

North America

Central America and the Caribbean

South America

Australia, New Zealand and Oceania

Source: Adapted from UNEP, Global Mercury Assessment 2013: Sources, Emissions, Releases and Environmental Transport, 2013. Designed by Zoï Environment Network / GRID-Arendal, December 2012.

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MERCURY – TIME TO ACT

Global mercury supply 1985-2005 Commodity Hg (tonnes)

8,000

7,000

6,000

5,000

4,000

3,000

2,000

1,000

0

1985

1990

1995

2000

2005

Mercury use in ASGMwas estimated by Mercury Watch at 1,400 tonnes in 2011.

Mercury from stocks

Mercury from chlor-alkali industry

Recycled mercury

Mining & by-product mercury

Source: Adapted from UNEP, ‘Summary of Supply,Trade and Demand Information on Mercury’, 2006. → http://www.chem.unep.ch/mercury/PM-HgSupplyTradeDemand-Final-Nov2006-PMformat19Jan07.pdf Designed by Zoï Environment Network / GRID-Arendal, December 2012.

ASGM is the largest sector of demand for mercury, using it to separate the metal from the ore. At least 10–15 million min- ers are involved worldwide, mainly in Africa, Asia and South America. An estimated three million of them are women and children (UNEP, 2012). Mercury use in ASGM was estimated by Mercury Watch at 1,400 tonnes in 2011, and rising gold prices are likely to increase that use (UNEP, 2012). The prac- tice threatens the health of the workers and their families, and the people downstream who eat mercury-contaminated fish or drink the water. It can also cause environmental damage

that may persist for decades after the mining has stopped. Low-mercury and mercury-free methods are available, but socio-economic conditions are often barriers to the adoption of better practices (UNEP, 2012). Persuading miners to change the way they work because mercury is a threat to them and their families can be difficult, but some good examples exist. The Sustainable Artisanal Mining project in Mongolia, sup- ported by the Swiss Development Cooperation, is one such initiative, involving the Mongolian Government in working with miners to develop policies and technical solutions to

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MERCURY – TIME TO ACT

Industrial processes: input and output of mercury

INPUT

PROCESS

OUTPUT

INDUSTRIAL MERCURY DEMAND IN MANUFACTURING Tonnes per year, estimates 2005

Compact fluorescent lamps (CFL) production

166

PRODUCTS CONTAINING MERCURY

Electrical and electronic devices production

Automobiles Irrigation pumps Light switches Thermostats Button cell batteries Special batteries Compact fluorescent lamps Paints (red pigment)

292

Measuring and control devices production

292

Batteries production

Processes that produce products containing mercury

333

Dental amalgam production

542

Pharmaceuticals Dental amalgam

Chlorine and caustic soda production

Vinyl chloride monomer production

625

Processes using mercury

875

Sources: adapted from UNEP, Summary of supply, trade and demand information on mercury, 2006; UNEP, Mercury, A Priority for Action, 2008. Designed by Zoï Environment Network / GRID-Arendal, December 2012

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MERCURY – TIME TO ACT

Mercury in artisanal and small-scale gold mining

Global mercury demand is expected to decline in response to the treaty.

Rocks or sediments containing gold are manually extracted

Direct impact on gold miner health

Indirect impact on children and fetus

eliminate mercury use. The Global Mercury Partnership pro- motes the establishment of national action plans and reduc- tion targets, encourages collaboration and the sharing of best practices to reduce mercury use, and helps the take-up of in- novative market-based approaches. The VCM industry, the basis for the large global production of polyvinyl chloride (PVC), used in plastics, is the second largest user of mercury, which is used as a catalyst in the production process. Most of this production occurs in China. About 800 tonnes of mercury are thought to have been used by this in- dustry in China in 2012. Used mercury catalyst is recycled and reused by enterprises that hold permits for hazadous waste management in China. The amounts that may be emitted or released are not known (UNEP, 2013). Once a globally-binding treaty is in place, there is hope that global mercury demand will decline sharply as industries that use mercury in products and processes or release it to the environment will be required to meet the obligations set out in the instrument.

Mercury vapour is released into the atmosphere

Mercury is used to separate gold from the ore

The amalgam is heated to drive off the mercury, leaving the gold

Poor processing practices release mercury to soil and water

Water pollution

Soil pollution

Human food chain contamination

Sources: adapted from UNEP, Reducing Mercury Use in Artisanal and Small-scale Gold Mining, 2012. Designed by Zoï Environment Network / GRID-Arendal, December 2012

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MERCURY – TIME TO ACT

Impacts on human health and ecosystems

ter becomes more biologically dangerous and eventually some mercury evaporates into the atmosphere. Once deposited in soils and sediments, the mercury changes its chemical form, largely through metabolism by bacteria or other microbes, and becomes methylmercury, the most dangerous form for human health and the environment. Methylmercury normally accounts for at least 90 per cent of the mercury in fish. Mercury can enter the food chain either from agricultural prod- ucts or from seafood. It was widely used in agriculture, and at least 459 people are known to have died in Iraq after grain treated with a fungicide containing mercury was imported in 1971 and used to make flour (Greenwood, 1985). Those who showed the greatest effects were the children of women who had eaten contaminated bread during pregnancy. Though many of these acute cases are now in the past, agricultural products may still contain mercury. The Institute for Agricul- ture and Trade Policy in USA recently found that high fruc- tose corn syrup (used in sodas, ketchup and bread) could also contain elevated mercury levels (Dufault et al ., 2009). Another study suggested that in an area marked by intensive mercury mining and smelting and heavy coal-powered industry, rice crops could be contaminated (Zhang et al ., 2010).

While some pollutants are restricted in their range and in the size and number of the populations they affect, mercury is not one of them. Wherever it is mined, used or discarded, it is li- able – in the absence of effective disposal methods – to finish up thousands of kilometers away because of its propensity to travel through air and water. Beyond that, it reaches the envi- ronment more often after being unintentionally emitted than through negligence in its disposal. The prime example of this is the role played by the burning of fossil fuels and biomass in adding to mercury emissions. Once released, mercury can travel long distances, and persists in environments where it circulates between air, water, sedi- ments, soil, and living organisms. Mercury is concentrated as it rises up the food chain, reaching its highest level in preda- tor fish such as swordfish and shark that may be consumed by humans. There can also be serious impacts on ecosystems, including reproductive effects on birds and predatory mam- mals. High exposure to mercury is a serious risk to human health and to the environment.

Air emissions of mercury are highly mobile globally, while aquatic releases of mercury are more localised. Mercury in wa-

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MERCURY – TIME TO ACT

Howmercury can enter our environment

Chlor-alkali plant Cement plant Vinyl chloride monomer plant

Coal-fired power plant

Artisanal and small-scale gold mining

Deposition from atmosphere

Non-ferrous metal plant

Waste incineration and cremation

Mercury is released into streams and water bodies

Soil contamination

Landfill

Leakage into groundwater

Mercury diffusion, deposition and suspension

Urban sewage system

Contamined surface water evaporation

Biomagnification

Leakage in groundwater and water bodies

Large predatory fish

Micro-organisms

Sources: adapted from UNEP, Mercury Awareness Raising Package, accessed on line in September 2012 (http://www.unep.org/hazardoussubstances); Institute for Agruculture andTrade Policy, High fructose corn syrup's not-so-sweet surprise: mercury!, 2009. Designed by Zoï Environment Network / GRID-Arendal, December 2012

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MERCURY – TIME TO ACT

2001-2003

1998-1999 2005-2006

2003-2006 1998-1999

1997

2005- 2007

2001-2003

Human groups at risk include the millions of ASGM miners across the world, where mercury compounds are used in production. However, a far greater number of people whose main source of protein is fish or other marine creatures may be exposed to contamination (UNEP-WHO, 2008). The Food and Agriculture Organization says: “Just over 100million tonnes of fish are eaten world-wide each year, providing two and a half billion people with at least 20 per cent of their average per capita animal protein intake. This contribution is even more important in developing countries, especially small island states and in coastal regions, where frequently over 50 per cent of people’s ani- mal protein comes from fish. In some of the most food-insecure places – many parts of Asia and Africa, for instance – fish protein is absolutely essential, accounting for a large share of an already low level of animal protein consumption” (FAO, 2010). The once pristine Arctic region is a special case. About 200 tonnes of mercury are deposited in the Arctic annually, generally far from where it originated. A 2011 report by the Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP) report- ed that mercury levels are continuing to rise in some Arctic species, despite reductions over the past 30 years in emissions from human activities in some parts of the world. It reports

2000- 2007

2003

1999- 2005

2006 2002-2003

2005

1999-2005

2006

Mercury in the Arctic

Exceedance of blood guideline values (5.8 μg/L) for (total) mercury in mothers and women of child-bearing age in di erent populations around the Arctic (comparable data not available from Norway, Sweden and Finland).

Mercury in blood, % of samples exceeding 5.8 μg/L

100

Atmospheric transport

Aquatic transport Riverine in ow

50

0

Source:Adapted fromArcticMonitoringandAssessmentProgramme (AMAP),ArcticPollution2011 (>www.amap.no) DesignedbyZoïEnvironmentNetwork /GRID-Arendal,December2012

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MERCURY – TIME TO ACT

Mercury can seriously harm human health.

and cognitive and motor dysfunction. Recent studies have also shown mercury to have cardiovascular effects (McKelvey and Oken, 2012). In the young it can cause neurological damage re- sulting in symptoms such as mental retardation, seizures, vision and hearing loss, delayed development, language disorders and memory loss. The Inuit population of Quebec has among the highest levels of exposure to mercury of any population in the world. Scientists recently concluded that children with higher levels of contamination are more likely to be diagnosed with at- tention deficit hyperactivity disorder (Boucher et al ., 2012). In cases of severe mercury poisoning, as occurred in the Mi- namata case in Japan, symptoms can include numbness in the hands and feet, general muscle weakness, narrowing of the field of vision, and damage to hearing and speech (EINAP). In extreme cases, insanity, paralysis, coma and death have been known to ensue rapidly. People may be at risk of inhaling mer- cury vapour from their work (in industry or ASGM), or in spills, and may be at risk through direct contact of mercury with the skin. The most common form of direct exposure for humans, however, is through consuming fish and sea food contami- nated with methylmercury. Once ingested, 95 per cent of the chemical is absorbed in the body.

a ten-fold increase in the last 150 years in levels in belugas, ringed seals, polar bears and birds of prey. Over 90 per cent of the mercury in these animals, and possibly in some Arctic human populations, is therefore believed to have originated from human sources. The average rate of increase in wildlife over the past 150 years is one to four per cent annually. The re- port is clear about the implications for human health: “The fact that trends are increasing in some marine species in Canada and West Greenland despite reductions in North American emissions is a particular cause for concern, as these include species used for food” (AMAP, 2011). A recent study of the preschool children in three regions of the Arctic showed that almost 59% of chil- dren exceeded the provisional tolerable weekly intake (PTWI) level for children (Tian et al ., 2011; WHO, 1998). Mercury can seriously harm human health, and is a particular threat to the development of fetuses and young children. It af- fects humans in several ways. As vapour it is rapidly absorbed into the blood stream when inhaled. It damages the central nervous system, thyroid, kidneys, lungs, immune system, eyes, gums and skin. Neurological and behavioural disorders may be signs ofmercury contamination, with symptoms including trem- ors, insomnia, memory loss, neuromuscular effects, headaches,

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MERCURY – TIME TO ACT

Mercury and human health

GENERAL EXPOSURE

OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE

Large predatory fish

Nervous system

Manufacturing of products containing mercury (e.g. compact fluorescent lamps, batteries, medical devices)

Vegetables from contaminated soils

Lungs

Most affected organs

Heart

Liver

Skin

Kidneys

Cosmetics, Soaps

Artisanal and small-scale gold mining

Fetus

Use and damage of products containing mercury (e.g. compact fluorescent lamps, batteries, medical devices)

Industry (e.g. Chlor-alkali industry, cement production, metal production)

Waste

Source: adapted fromWHO,TowardTheTipping Point.WHO-HCWH Global Initiative to Substitute Mercury-Based Medical Devices in Health Care, 2010; UNEP, Mercury Awareness Raising Package, accessed on line in September 2012 (http://www.unep.org/hazardoussubstances). Designed by Zoï Environment Network / GRID-Arendal, December 2012

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MERCURY – TIME TO ACT

Population at risk frommercury contamination

Mercury pollution from mining and ore processing Mercury contamination from artisanal and small-scale gold mining

Densely populated area Populated area

Key regions of a ected people by mercury pollution

Sparsely populated area

Health risk by consumption of contaminated marine mammals in arctic communities

Source:Adapted fromBlacksmith Institute (>www.worstpolluted.org);ArcticMonitoringandAssessmentProgramme (AMAP) (>www.amap.no) DesignedbyZoïEnvironmentNetwork /GRID-Arendal,December2012

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MERCURY – TIME TO ACT

Emissions and releases

Regional mercury emissions in 2010

4.2 %

1.1 %

2.4 %

5.9 %

Australia, New Zealand & Oceania Central America and the Caribbean CIS & other European countries East and Southeast Asia EU27 Middle Eastern States North Africa North America South Asia South America*

16.1 % *

12.5 % *

39.7 %

7.9 %

Sub-Saharan Africa* Region unde ned**

3.1 %

0.7 %

1.9 %

4.5 %

* Artisanal and small-scale gold mining is by far the major contributor to mercury emissions in South America and Sub-Saharan Africa ** Emissions from contaminated sites.

Source: Adapted from UNEP, Global Mercury Assessment 2013: Sources, Emissions, Releases and Environmental Transport, 2013. Designed by Zoï Environment Network / GRID-Arendal, December 2012.

about half of global emissions. Emissions in Sub-Saharan Af- rica and in South America are slowly rising (together account- ing for about 30 per cent of global emissions), while emissions are declining in North America and Europe (about eight per cent of global emissions altogether) (UNEP, 2013).

Global emissions of mercury to the air in 2010 from human ac- tivities were estimated at 1,960 tonnes. Although it is difficult to compare emissions estimates for individual years, total an- thropogenic emissions of mercury to the atmosphere appear to have been relatively stable from 1990 to 2010 (UNEP, 2013). There has been a large shift in regional patterns, however. Eco- nomic growth has driven an increase in anthropogenic emis- sions in Southern and Eastern Asia, which now account for

The largest anthropogenic sources are associated with arti- sanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) and coal burning,

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MERCURY – TIME TO ACT

Global anthropogenic mercury emissions in 2010

Fossil fuel combustion (power&heating)

Metal production (ferrous & non-ferrous)

6 %

Chlor-alkali industry

24 %

18 %

Waste incineration, waste & other

Artisanal and small-scale gold mining

5 %

Cement production

1 %

9 %

Other

37 %

Emissions to air

tonnes

Source: Adapted from UNEP, Global Mercury Assessment 2013: Sources, Emissions, Releases and Environmental Transport, 2013. Designed by Zoï Environment Network / GRID-Arendal, December 2012.

2,500

which together contribute about 61 per cent of total annual anthropogenic emissions to the air (UNEP, 2013). Other major contributors include ferrous and non-ferrous metal produc- tion and cement production, together responsible for 27 per cent (UNEP, 2013). Emissions of mercury from ASGM reported for 2010 are more than twice those reported for 2005. While the higher price of gold and increased rural poverty may indeed have caused more activity in this sector, the increased emissions estimates are thought to explained mainly by better data (UNEP, 2013). Coal burning for electric power generation and for indus- trial purposes continues to increase, especially in Asia (UNEP, 2013). Coal does not normally contain high concentrations of mercury, but the combination of the large volume burned and the fact that a significant portion of the mercury present

2,000

1,500

1,000

500

0

Source: Adapted from UNEP Study on mercury sources and emissions, and analysis of cost and effectiveness of control measures, 2010. Designed by Zoï Environment Network / GRID-Arendal, December 2012. Intentional use sectors Unintentional use sectors 1990 1995 2005 2000

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MERCURY – TIME TO ACT

way mercury is transported to the Arctic is by the atmosphere, which contributes slightly less than half. Oceanic transport, mainly from the Atlantic, makes up around 23 per cent, with a similar amount coming from coastal erosion. The remainder comes from rivers. Mercury reaches the Arctic on air currents within days, while on ocean currents it may take decades. The form in which mercury is released and the processes that change it from one chemical form to another are the key to determining its spread and fate. The aquatic environment is of critical importance to mercury pathways to humans and wild- life, because inorganic mercury in water is transformed into highly toxic methylmercury. About 100 tonnes are estimated to reach the Arctic Ocean by air annually, with about the same amount from the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, rivers and erosion combined. Recent cal- culations suggest that the water in the Arctic Ocean accumu- lates about 25 tonnes of mercury a year (AMAP, 2011). Less is known about mercury dynamics and pathways in the ocean than in the atmosphere, but about 75-90 tonnes annually are thought to leave the Arctic in ocean outflow, with about 110 tonnes deposited in Arctic Ocean shelf and deep ocean sedi- ments (AMAP, 2011).

is emitted to the atmosphere results in large overall emissions from this sector. The mercury content of coal varies widely, making emissions estimates highly uncertain (UNEP, 2013). Much of the mercury released into aquatic environments comes from ASGM. However, the latest findings suggest that even deforestation can be a source of mercury emissions through extensive erosion, which releases mercury previously held in soils. Using 2010 figures for global deforestation rates, it is estimated that around 260 tonnes of mercury may have been released into rivers that year (UNEP, 2013). Assessing the global spread and fate of mercury is a challeng- ing task, as there are few studies available about net deposi- tion of different forms of mercury in air, water and land. For example, when mercury moves from air to water and land it is generally in an oxidized gaseous or particle form, where- as when it is re-emitted to air it has been converted back to gaseous elemental mercury. These complicated mechanisms make final calculations a challenging task.

Much of the mercury in the Arctic has been carried over long distances from human sources at lower latitudes. The main

Even deforestation can be a source ofmercury emissions through extensive erosion and forest burning.

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MERCURY – TIME TO ACT

Long-range mercury transport

Major emission areas Mercury deposition > 20 g/km²/year Mercury deposition > 12 g/km²/year High annual mercury uxes to oceans High annual mercury uxes in major river mouths

Major winds Major ocean currents

Source:Adapted fromAMAP/UNEP2008,TechnicalBackgroundReport to theGlobalAtmosphericMercuryAssessment;UNEP,GlobalMercuryAssessment2013:Sources,Emissions,ReleasesandEnvironmentalTransport,2013 DesignedbyZoïEnvironmentNetwork /GRID-Arendal,December2012

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MERCURY – TIME TO ACT

Artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM)

Estimated mercury releases from ASGM in tonnes per year

Estimated numbers of miners

0-5

10,000

5-10 10-25 25-50

100,000

500,000

50-500

Reported countries with ASGM

No estimate

Source:Adapted fromMercuryWatchdatabase (>www.mercurywatch.org); UNEPGlobalForumonArtisanalandSmall-scalegoldminingManila,8thDecember2010 DesignedbyZoïEnvironmentNetwork /GRID-Arendal,December2012

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Made with